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EVI YUNI LEVI 2011 A ( Move to class B)
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of the structure of a sentence and ordering of its elements. The word syntax itself derives from Greek words meaning ‘together’ or ‘arrangement’, but also the modern syntactic tradition and investigations have their roots in the findings of ancient Greeks. One of such ‘traditional’ tasks of linguists dealing with syntax was to describe the organization of the parts of a sentence, however, with the development of this branch of linguistics, and especially in contemporary inquiries the scope of interest has widened.
Yet, before the most recent theories are presented the very concept of a ‘sentence’ needs clarification. As a general rule, a sentence is described as a full formulation of an idea, nevertheless, there are numerous examples of thoughts expressed in a language, and yet in not fully developed sentences, like: ‘Go!’, or ‘Coffee?’. That is why two different approaches to defining sentences have emerged: notional which characterizes a sentence as an expression of a single idea, and formal focusing on the manners of constructing sentences, and patterns within them.
As a consequence of the differences in the approaches a division of sentences on the basis of their complexity was created. And thus sentences are either major, or minor. Major sentences are those which can be modified or analyzed further into patterns of elements. They are further subdivided into simple sentences, which consist of only one clause, or multiple sentences consisting of two or more clauses. On the other hand, minor sentences cannot be broken down into patterns of elements, because they use ‘abnormal’ patterns, in that they do not follow the rules of grammar. Some types of minor sentences include: abbreviated forms, such as ‘wish you were here’; proverbs: ‘easy come, easy go’; emotional noises: ‘ouch!’, ‘ugh!’; formulae: ‘how do you do?’.
Seeing all those difficulties an American linguist Noam Chomsky came up with an idea of generative grammar, which was supposed to look at the grammar of language from the mathematical point of view, constructing a limited number of rules describing all the possible patterns of forming correct sentences. Moreover, what Chomsky showed was the difference between the deep and surface structure of a sentence. What he called the surface structure of a sentence was its grammatical form, and the deep structure was understood as the meaning of sentence. For example the two sentences: I know Mary. and Mary knows me. differ in their surface structure, but not in their deep structure. Still, it is the deep structure that might cause the biggest problems. Certain sentences, although easily understood, can be ambiguous because of their structure, like for instance He hit a guy with a car. This sentence can mean that he was driving a car and hit someone, or that he hit somebody who had a car.
Overgoasyntax is the study of the rules for the formation of grammatical sentences in a language or the study of the patterns of formation of sentences and phrases from words.
The basic components of a sentence usually are the subject, verb and then any objects (that depends on if a word is transitive or intransitive).
There are many basic forms, usually using S (subject), V (verb) and O (object). These patterns include
SVO
SOV
VSO
VOS
OSV
OVS
English is heavily SVO, unless it's a question in which case it's VSO. Syntax and literature are so important and dependent upon each other that the two cannot be separated. Syntax in literature gives the sum of the words meaning in a way that simply listing words never would. Syntax influences literature in a big way, because without proper syntax literature would simply not exist, nor would many of the subtleties that academics and casual readers alike love to ponder. In looking at syntax in literature, writers can use it in numerous ways to convey different meanings and provoke certain responses.
In order to look at the role of syntax in literature, it is first necessary to understand exactly what syntax is. Syntax is defined as as the structure and placement of words for the purposes of creating sentences. Usually, syntax does not concern itself with the placement of punctuation, though punctuation can help the reader determine where a certain emphasis is in the sentence. Such grammatical marks can help convey even deeper meaning than syntax alone.
By following the rules of language, syntax in literature helps convey meaning. Wording can help the reader determine who is speaking, and the overall mood of the author wishes to convey, in a logical fashion. Readers typically expect a certain syntax flow. In some cases, such as with E. E. Cummings, syntax provided a figurative canvas for poetic expression that intentionally broke the rules of the English language in order to create a unique look and feel. Poetry is one area in which syntax often differs from its usage in other written forms.
Without proper syntax, literature would simply be a list of words that conveyed no particular meaning. Some have likened literature without syntax to words in a dictionary. While the words all mean something, they are not put together in any way that conveys a deeper sense of meaning or mood.
In most literature, syntax takes a standard form that most can recognize. Despite this standard form, the author still has a great deal of leeway in developing sentences to create moods and convey thoughts. The author may choose longer sentences or shorter sentences. He or she may use larger words that flow or shorter words that help break up the passage. The possibilities are virtually endless.
Syntax in literature, at least in most forms of literature, begins with the typical construction of subject and verb. The subject and verb must agree, or be conjugated properly. In English, this usually involves putting an "s" or "ed" at the end of the verb, or simply leaving it alone. In other languages, verb forms can be much more complex and incorporate many different ending forms. These forms, in some languages, can be used to infer what the subject is, thus replacing the need to mention the subject in all cases; consequently when literary works are translated form one language to another, one of the great challenges is choosing syntactical structures in the target language that accurately represent the precise meaning found in the original.
NAME:RIFKI OKTAVIANI
CLASS:2011-C
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of the structure of a sentence and ordering of its elements. The word syntax itself derives from Greek words meaning ‘together’ or ‘arrangement’, but also the modern syntactic tradition and investigations have their roots in the findings of ancient Greeks. One of such ‘traditional’ tasks of linguists dealing with syntax was to describe the organization of the parts of a sentence, however, with the development of this branch of linguistics, and especially in contemporary inquiries the scope of interest has widened.
Yet, before the most recent theories are presented the very concept of a ‘sentence’ needs clarification. As a general rule, a sentence is described as a full formulation of an idea, nevertheless, there are numerous examples of thoughts expressed in a language, and yet in not fully developed sentences, like: ‘Go!’, or ‘Coffee?’. That is why two different approaches to defining sentences have emerged: notional which characterizes a sentence as an expression of a single idea, and formal focusing on the manners of constructing sentences, and patterns within them.
As a consequence of the differences in the approaches a division of sentences on the basis of their complexity was created. And thus sentences are either major, or minor. Major sentences are those which can be modified or analyzed further into patterns of elements. They are further subdivided into simple sentences, which consist of only one clause, or multiple sentences consisting of two or more clauses. On the other hand, minor sentences cannot be broken down into patterns of elements, because they use ‘abnormal’ patterns, in that they do not follow the rules of grammar. Some types of minor sentences include: abbreviated forms, such as ‘wish you were here’; proverbs: ‘easy come, easy go’; emotional noises: ‘ouch!’, ‘ugh!’; formulae: ‘how do you do?’.
endah dwi maya siska 2011 A/05
Syntax is the grammatical arrangements of words in sentences. inverted syntax. Syntax could also be seen as the study of these rules.
In linguistics, the study of the rules that govern the ways in which words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is one of the major components of grammar.
A syntax is just a grammatical order or arrangement of words in a sentence. It's a study of rules for constructing acceptable sentences. In computer language if you receive a syntax error, it means you didn't enter a command in it's correct.
In linguistics, the study of the rules that govern the ways in which words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is one of the major components of grammar
"Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages. Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its goal the construction of a grammar that can be viewed as a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under analysis."
The Role of Syntax in Language
This section is an introduction to syntax in language as far as it is relevant to the content of this book. It is not meant to be a rigorous discussion of linguistics. What I am describing is a simple orthodox view of the grammar of language. Some more complex models are discussed by linguists but these are beyond the scope of this description. This section is included for those readers who would like a brief overview without having to refer separately to a linguistics textbook. Those who would like to read more about the various linguistic theories should refer to the bibliography for references to linguistics books and to sites on the web covering linguistic topics
The Representations of Syntax
In Linguistics, the syntax of sentences can be described by different methods, for instance, for the following sentence:
"The boy kicked the ball"
The syntax can be described, by the following methods:
1. A statement of the correct sequence of the parts of speech (or Syntactic Categories):
Subject is followed by verb is followed by object.
In the above example,
subject = "The boy" (article followed by noun)
verb = "kicked"
object = "The ball" (article followed by noun)
SITI MARIYAM (2011 B)
Syntax is the grammatical arrangements of words in sentences. inverted syntax. Syntax could also be seen as the study of these rules.
In linguistics, the study of the rules that govern the ways in which words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is one of the major components of grammar.
A syntax is just a grammatical order or arrangement of words in a sentence. It's a study of rules for constructing acceptable sentences. In computer language if you receive a syntax error, it means you didn't enter a command in it's correct.
In linguistics, the study of the rules that govern the ways in which words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is one of the major components of grammar
"Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages. Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its goal the construction of a grammar that can be viewed as a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under analysis."
The Role of Syntax in Language
This section is an introduction to syntax in language as far as it is relevant to the content of this book. It is not meant to be a rigorous discussion of linguistics. What I am describing is a simple orthodox view of the grammar of language. Some more complex models are discussed by linguists but these are beyond the scope of this description. This section is included for those readers who would like a brief overview without having to refer separately to a linguistics textbook. Those who would like to read more about the various linguistic theories should refer to the bibliography for references to linguistics books and to sites on the web covering linguistic topics
The Representations of Syntax
In Linguistics, the syntax of sentences can be described by different methods, for instance, for the following sentence:
"The boy kicked the ball"
The syntax can be described, by the following methods:
1. A statement of the correct sequence of the parts of speech (or Syntactic Categories):
Subject is followed by verb is followed by object.
In the above example,
subject = "The boy" (article followed by noun)
verb = "kicked"
object = "The ball" (article followed by noun)
SITI MARIYAM (2011 B)
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of the structure of a sentence and ordering of its elements. The word syntax itself derives from Greek words meaning ‘together’ or ‘arrangement’, but also the modern syntactic tradition and investigations have their roots in the findings of ancient Greeks. One of such ‘traditional’ tasks of linguists dealing with syntax was to describe the organization of the parts of a sentence, however, with the development of this branch of linguistics, and especially in contemporary inquiries the scope of interest has widened.
Yet, before the most recent theories are presented the very concept of a ‘sentence’ needs clarification. As a general rule, a sentence is described as a full formulation of an idea, nevertheless, there are numerous examples of thoughts expressed in a language, and yet in not fully developed sentences, like: ‘Go!’, or ‘Coffee?’. That is why two different approaches to defining sentences have emerged: notional which characterizes a sentence as an expression of a single idea, and formal focusing on the manners of constructing sentences, and patterns within them.
As a consequence of the differences in the approaches a division of sentences on the basis of their complexity was created. And thus sentences are either major, or minor. Major sentences are those which can be modified or analyzed further into patterns of elements. They are further subdivided into simple sentences, which consist of only one clause, or multiple sentences consisting of two or more clauses. On the other hand, minor sentences cannot be broken down into patterns of elements, because they use ‘abnormal’ patterns, in that they do not follow the rules of grammar. Some types of minor sentences include: abbreviated forms, such as ‘wish you were here’; proverbs: ‘easy come, easy go’; emotional noises: ‘ouch!’, ‘ugh!’; formulae: ‘how do you do?’.
nuren giar mandasar 2011 A/10
NAMA: LAILATUL FITRIA
NO: 33, 2011B
In linguistics, the study of the rules that govern the ways in which words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is one of the major components of grammar
The arrangement of words in a sentence. Adjective: syntactic.
• "Within traditional grammar, the syntax of a language is described in terms of a taxonomy (i.e. the classificatory list) of the range of different types of syntactic structures found in the language. The central assumption underpinning syntactic analysis in traditional grammar is that phrases and sentences are built up of a series of constituents (i.e. syntactic units), each of which belongs to a specific grammatical category and serves a specific grammatical function. Given this assumption, the task of the linguist analysing the syntactic structure of any given type of sentence is to identify each of the constituents in the sentence, and (for each constituent) to say what category it belongs to and what function it serves. . . .
"In contrast to the taxonomic approach adopted in traditional grammar, [Noam] Chomsky takes a cognitive approach to the study of grammar. For Chomsky, the goal of the linguist is to determine what it is that native speakers know about their native language which enables them to speak and understand the language fluently: hence, the study of language is part of the wider study of cognition (i.e. what human beings know). In a fairly obvious sense, any native speaker of a language can be said to know the grammar of his or her native language."
• "Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages. Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its goal the construction of a grammar that can be viewed as a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under analysis."
"Syntactic change--change in the form and order of words--is . . . sometimes described as 'an elusive process as compared to sound change.' Its apparently puzzling nature is partly due to its variety. Word endings can be modified. Chaucer's line And smale foweles maken melodye shows that English has changed several of them in the last 600 years. The behaviour of verbs can alter. Middle English I kan a noble tale 'I know a fine story' reveals that can could once be used as a main verb with a direct object. And word order may switch. The proverb Whoever loved that loved not at first sight? indicates that English negatives could once be placed after main verbs. These are just a random sample of syntactic changes which have occurred in English in the last half-millennium or so."
(Jean Aitchison, Language Change: Progress or Decay? 3rd ed. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2001)
"Syntax is a word which comes from the Greek. It means, in that language, the joining of several things together; and, as used by grammarians, it means those principles and rules which teach us how to put words together so as to form sentences. It means, in short, sentence-making. Having been taught by the rules of Etymology what are the relationships of words, how words grow out of each other, how they are varied in their letters in order to correspond with the variation in the circumstances to which they apply, Syntax will teach you how to give all your words their proper situations or places, when you come to put them together into sentences."
rachmat hidayat,2011 b
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of the structure of a sentence and ordering of its elements. The word syntax itself derives from Greek words meaning ‘together’ or ‘arrangement’, but also the modern syntactic tradition and investigations have their roots in the findings of ancient Greeks. One of such ‘traditional’ tasks of linguists dealing with syntax was to describe the organization of the parts of a sentence, however, with the development of this branch of linguistics, and especially in contemporary inquiries the scope of interest has widened.
Yet, before the most recent theories are presented the very concept of a ‘sentence’ needs clarification. As a general rule, a sentence is described as a full formulation of an idea, nevertheless, there are numerous examples of thoughts expressed in a language, and yet in not fully developed sentences, like: ‘Go!’, or ‘Coffee?’. That is why two different approaches to defining sentences have emerged: notional which characterizes a sentence as an expression of a single idea, and formal focusing on the manners of constructing sentences, and patterns within them.
As a consequence of the differences in the approaches a division of sentences on the basis of their complexity was created. And thus sentences are either major, or minor. Major sentences are those which can be modified or analyzed further into patterns of elements. They are further subdivided into simple sentences, which consist of only one clause, or multiple sentences consisting of two or more clauses. On the other hand, minor sentences cannot be broken down into patterns of elements, because they use ‘abnormal’ patterns, in that they do not follow the rules of grammar. Some types of minor sentences include: abbreviated forms, such as ‘wish you were here’; proverbs: ‘easy come, easy go’; emotional noises: ‘ouch!’, ‘ugh!’; formulae: ‘how do you do?’.
Seeing all those difficulties an American linguist Noam Chomsky came up with an idea of generative grammar, which was supposed to look at the grammar of language from the mathematical point of view, constructing a limited number of rules describing all the possible patterns of forming correct sentences. Moreover, what Chomsky showed was the difference between the deep and surface structure of a sentence. What he called the surface structure of a sentence was its grammatical form, and the deep structure was understood as the meaning of sentence. For example the two sentences: I know Mary. and Mary knows me. differ in their surface structure, but not in their deep structure. Still, it is the deep structure that might cause the biggest problems. Certain sentences, although easily understood, can be ambiguous because of their structure, like for instance He hit a guy with a car. This sentence can mean that he was driving a car and hit someone, or that he hit somebody who had a car.
Name : Riga Ajeng Selarasari
Class : 2011 B
Definition of Syntax
"Syntax is a word which comes from the Greek. Syntax is the study of the part of the human linguistic system that determines how sentences are put together out of words. Syntactic rules in a grammar account for the grammaticality of sentences, and the ordering of words and morphemes. Syntax involves our knowledge of structural ambiguilt your knowledge that sentences may be paraphrases of each other our knowledge of the grammatical function of each part of a sentence, that is, of the grammatical relations.It is also concerned with speakers' ability to produce and understand an infinite set of possible sentences.The sentence is regarded the highest-ranking unit of grammar, and therefore that the purpose of grammatical description is to define, making use of whatever descriptive apparatus that may be necessary (rules, categories, etc).
Syntactic Rules
Three universal basic syntactic rules:Linear order of constituentsCategorization of constituents Grouping of constituents into constituent structures.
Sentence Types
Sentences in any language are constructed from a rather small set of basic structural patterns
and through certain processes involving the expansion or transformation of these basic patterns.When we consider sentence types from another perspective, it can be shown that each
of the longer sentences of a language (and these are in the majorityusually) is structured in the same way as one of arelatively small number of short sentences which areimpossible to reduce to a short form.These short sentences have the basic sentence types. There are different ways of dealing with sentence types.
Sentence Types
1. Simple Sentence : A simple sentence contains only one clause with a single verb group.
Example:
• Dora yelled.
• Christ resembled his father.
• Jack and Jill love each other.
• A runner from Ethiopia won the New York marathon this year.
• The students should have been working on the term paper.
2. Coordinate Sentence :A coordinate sentence has two clausesconjoined into one by a coordinating conjunction. (and, but, or). They hold equal status.
Example:
• Christ resembled his father, but hisbrother resembled his mother.
• Mark loves Dora, and she feels it
3. Complex Sentence : A complex sentence is composed of twoclauses with one holding main status(matrix clause) and the other incorporated or embedded into it(embedded clause), which is often introduced by a subordinator (who, that,though, when, because, as, since,although)
Example :
• Mark denied that Dora yelled.
• The murderer escaped when the policearrived at the scene
Syntactic Function
The traditional approach to syntactic function identifies constituents of the sentence, states the part of speech each word belongs to, describes theinflexion involved, and explains the relationship each word related to the others.According to its relation to other constituents, a constituent may serve certain syntactic function ina clause
NAMA: AISAH
NO: 14, 2011B
(1) In linguistics, the study of the rules that govern the ways in which words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is one of the major components of grammar
(2) The arrangement of words in a sentence. Adjective: syntactic.
• "Within traditional grammar, the syntax of a language is described in terms of a taxonomy (i.e. the classificatory list) of the range of different types of syntactic structures found in the language. The central assumption underpinning syntactic analysis in traditional grammar is that phrases and sentences are built up of a series of constituents (i.e. syntactic units), each of which belongs to a specific grammatical category and serves a specific grammatical function. Given this assumption, the task of the linguist analysing the syntactic structure of any given type of sentence is to identify each of the constituents in the sentence, and (for each constituent) to say what category it belongs to and what function it serves. . . .
"In contrast to the taxonomic approach adopted in traditional grammar, [Noam] Chomsky takes a cognitive approach to the study of grammar. For Chomsky, the goal of the linguist is to determine what it is that native speakers know about their native language which enables them to speak and understand the language fluently: hence, the study of language is part of the wider study of cognition (i.e. what human beings know). In a fairly obvious sense, any native speaker of a language can be said to know the grammar of his or her native language."
• "Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages. Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its goal the construction of a grammar that can be viewed as a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under analysis."
"Syntactic change--change in the form and order of words--is . . . sometimes described as 'an elusive process as compared to sound change.' Its apparently puzzling nature is partly due to its variety. Word endings can be modified. Chaucer's line And smale foweles maken melodye shows that English has changed several of them in the last 600 years. The behaviour of verbs can alter. Middle English I kan a noble tale 'I know a fine story' reveals that can could once be used as a main verb with a direct object. And word order may switch. The proverb Whoever loved that loved not at first sight? indicates that English negatives could once be placed after main verbs. These are just a random sample of syntactic changes which have occurred in English in the last half-millennium or so."
(Jean Aitchison, Language Change: Progress or Decay? 3rd ed. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2001)
"Syntax is a word which comes from the Greek. It means, in that language, the joining of several things together; and, as used by grammarians, it means those principles and rules which teach us how to put words together so as to form sentences. It means, in short, sentence-making. Having been taught by the rules of Etymology what are the relationships of words, how words grow out of each other, how they are varied in their letters in order to correspond with the variation in the circumstances to which they apply, Syntax will teach you how to give all your words their proper situations or places, when you come to put them together into sentences."
NAMA: AISAH
NO: 14, 2011B
In linguistics, the study of the rules that govern the ways in which words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is one of the major components of grammar
The arrangement of words in a sentence. Adjective: syntactic.
"Within traditional grammar, the syntax of a language is described in terms of a taxonomy (i.e. the classificatory list) of the range of different types of syntactic structures found in the language. The central assumption underpinning syntactic analysis in traditional grammar is that phrases and sentences are built up of a series of constituents (i.e. syntactic units), each of which belongs to a specific grammatical category and serves a specific grammatical function. Given this assumption, the task of the linguist analysing the syntactic structure of any given type of sentence is to identify each of the constituents in the sentence, and (for each constituent) to say what category it belongs to and what function it serves. . . .
"In contrast to the taxonomic approach adopted in traditional grammar, [Noam] Chomsky takes a cognitive approach to the study of grammar. For Chomsky, the goal of the linguist is to determine what it is that native speakers know about their native language which enables them to speak and understand the language fluently: hence, the study of language is part of the wider study of cognition (i.e. what human beings know). In a fairly obvious sense, any native speaker of a language can be said to know the grammar of his or her native language."
"Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages. Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its goal the construction of a grammar that can be viewed as a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under analysis."
"Syntactic change--change in the form and order of words--is . . . sometimes described as 'an elusive process as compared to sound change.' Its apparently puzzling nature is partly due to its variety. Word endings can be modified. Chaucer's line And smale foweles maken melodye shows that English has changed several of them in the last 600 years. The behaviour of verbs can alter. Middle English I kan a noble tale 'I know a fine story' reveals that can could once be used as a main verb with a direct object. And word order may switch. The proverb Whoever loved that loved not at first sight? indicates that English negatives could once be placed after main verbs. These are just a random sample of syntactic changes which have occurred in English in the last half-millennium or so."
(Jean Aitchison, Language Change: Progress or Decay? 3rd ed. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2001)
"Syntax is a word which comes from the Greek. It means, in that language, the joining of several things together; and, as used by grammarians, it means those principles and rules which teach us how to put words together so as to form sentences. It means, in short, sentence-making. Having been taught by the rules of Etymology what are the relationships of words, how words grow out of each other, how they are varied in their letters in order to correspond with the variation in the circumstances to which they apply, Syntax will teach you how to give all your words their proper situations or places, when you come to put them together into sentences."
Name : Lailatul Istijabah
Class: 2011 B
SYNTAX
Syntax is from a Greek word meaning order or arrangement.
Syntax deals with the relation of words to each other as component parts of a sentence, and with their proper arrangement to express clearly the intended meaning.
Ground covered by syntax.
Following the Latin method, writers on English grammar usually divide syntax into the two general heads,- agreement and government.
Agreement is concerned with the following relations of words: words in apposition, verb and subject, pronoun and antecedent, adjective and noun.
Government has to do with verbs and prepositions, both of which are said to govern words by having them in the objective case.
Considering the scarcity of inflections in English, it is clear that if we merely follow the Latin treatment, the department of syntax will be a small affair. But there is a good deal else to watch in addition to the few forms; for there is an important and marked difference between Latin and English syntax. It is this:-
Latin syntax depends upon fixed rules governing the use of inflected forms: hence the position of words in a sentence is of little grammatical importance.
English syntax follows the Latin to a limited extent; but its leading characteristic is, that English syntax is founded upon the meaning and the logical connection of words rather than upon their form: consequently it is quite as necessary to place words properly, and to think clearly of the meaning of words, as to study inflected forms.
For example, the sentence, "The savage here the settler slew," is ambiguous. Savage may be the subject, following the regular order of subject; or settler may be the subject, the order being inverted. In Latin, distinct forms would be used, and it would not matter which one stood first.
There is, then, a double reason for not omitting syntax as a department of grammar,-
First, To study the rules regarding the use of inflected forms, some of which conform to classical grammar, while some are idiomatic (peculiar to our own language).
Second, To find out the logical methods which control us in the arrangement of words; and particularly when the grammatical and the logical conception of a sentence do not agree, or when they exist side by side in good usage.
As an illustration of the last remark, take the sentence, "Besides these famous books of Scott's and Johnson's, there is a copious 'Life' by Sheridan." In this there is a possessive form, and added to it the preposition of, also expressing a possessive relation. This is not logical; it is not consistent with the general rules of grammar: but none the less it is good English.
Also in the sentence, "None remained but he," grammatical rules would require him instead of he after the preposition; yet the expression is sustained by good authority.
In some cases, authorities-that is, standard writers-differ as to which of two constructions should be used, or the same writer will use both indifferently. Instances will be found in treating of the pronoun or noun with a gerund, pronoun and antecedent, sometimes verb and subject, etc.
When usage varies as to a given construction, both forms will be given in the following pages.
"Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages. Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its goal the construction of a grammar that can be viewed as a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under analysis."
Syntactic Changes in English
"Syntactic change--change in the form and order of words--is . . . sometimes described as 'an elusive process as compared to sound change.' Its apparently puzzling nature is partly due to its variety. Word endings can be modified. Chaucer's line And smale foweles maken melodye shows that English has changed several of them in the last 600 years. The behaviour of verbs can alter. Middle English I kan a noble tale 'I know a fine story' reveals that can could once be used as a main verb with a direct object. And word order may switch. The proverb Whoever loved that loved not at first sight? indicates that English negatives could once be placed after main verbs. These are just a random sample of syntactic changes which have occurred in English in the last half-millennium or so."
name : Ella Melinda Isyaroh
class : 2011 A
DIANA DIAS PARAMITA
2011-B
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of the structure of a sentence and ordering of its elements. The word syntax itself derives from Greek words meaning ‘together’ or ‘arrangement’, but also the modern syntactic tradition and investigations have their roots in the findings of ancient Greeks. One of such ‘traditional’ tasks of linguists dealing with syntax was to describe the organization of the parts of a sentence, however, with the development of this branch of linguistics, and especially in contemporary inquiries the scope of interest has widened.
Yet, before the most recent theories are presented the very concept of a ‘sentence’ needs clarification. As a general rule, a sentence is described as a full formulation of an idea, nevertheless, there are numerous examples of thoughts expressed in a language, and yet in not fully developed sentences, like: ‘Go!’, or ‘Coffee?’. That is why two different approaches to defining sentences have emerged: notional which characterizes a sentence as an expression of a single idea, and formal focusing on the manners of constructing sentences, and patterns within them.
As a consequence of the differences in the approaches a division of sentences on the basis of their complexity was created. And thus sentences are either major, or minor. Major sentences are those which can be modified or analyzed further into patterns of elements. They are further subdivided into simple sentences, which consist of only one clause, or multiple sentences consisting of two or more clauses. On the other hand, minor sentences cannot be broken down into patterns of elements, because they use ‘abnormal’ patterns, in that they do not follow the rules of grammar. Some types of minor sentences include: abbreviated forms, such as ‘wish you were here’; proverbs: ‘easy come, easy go’; emotional noises: ‘ouch!’, ‘ugh!’; formulae: ‘how do you do?’.
Seeing all those difficulties an American linguist Noam Chomsky came up with an idea of generative grammar, which was supposed to look at the grammar of language from the mathematical point of view, constructing a limited number of rules describing all the possible patterns of forming correct sentences. Moreover, what Chomsky showed was the difference between the deep and surface structure of a sentence. What he called the surface structure of a sentence was its grammatical form, and the deep structure was understood as the meaning of sentence. For example the two sentences: I know Mary. and Mary knows me. differ in their surface structure, but not in their deep structure. Still, it is the deep structure that might cause the biggest problems. Certain sentences, although easily understood, can be ambiguous because of their structure, like for instance He hit a guy with a car. This sentence can mean that he was driving a car and hit someone, or that he hit somebody who had a car.
"Syntax is a word which comes from the Greek. It means, in that language, the joining of several things together; and, as used by grammarians, it means those principles and rules which teach us how to put words together so as to form sentences. It means, in short, sentence-making. Having been taught by the rules of Etymology what are the relationships of words, how words grow out of each other, how they are varied in their letters in order to correspond with the variation in the circumstances to which they apply, Syntax will teach you how to give all your words their proper situations or places, when you come to put them together into sentences."
Basically, syntax is the rules by which signs are combined to make statements. If you consider the words of a language to be its signs, then its syntax is the rules which put signs together to make statements, ask questions, and produce other utterances.
Syntax incorporates the grammar of phrases, clauses, and sentences. Producing and uttering sentences is an important part of how we make sense of our world. We articulate the meaning of our experience in words; in the process of articulate, we make (or discover) the meaning of the experience. This process is similar to the ways in which we intrepret literature.
The syntax the exact structure of what we write is an essential part of its meaning. Change the structure and you have changed the meaning, at least slightly.
A few years ago, I was on Miami Beach. Along with the ocean breeze, there was the odor of exhaust from jet-skiers who were buzzing around just beyond the surf, coming close to swimmers and small craft. The juxtaposition of the two smells impressed me strongly. Since I'm inclined to express meaningful experiences in writing, I produced the following haiku:
sea breeze
carrying the fumes
of jet-ski exhaust
If it is successful, it will convey to the reader something of what I experienced. In any case, by articulating that experience in those words in that order, I discovered, formulated, and expressed the meaning of the experience for me.
Any writer does the same, thus the importance of syntax. If you think of syntax as the description of the living forms of language, rather than as the class room rules of grammar, you may find it more useful in developing your writing abilities.
Name : Lutfiyah
Class : 2011 A
Name : Indah Novita
Class : 2011 B
syntax
Let us now move on to another major structural aspect of language, syntax. The word syntax derives from the Greek word syntaxis, which meansarrangement. Morphology deals with word formation out of morphemes; syntax deals with phrase and sentence formation out of words.
What is a sentence?
Although everyone knows or thinks they know what a word is and what a sentence is, both terms defy exact definition. The sentence as a linguistic concept has been defined in over 200 different ways, none of them completely adequate. Here are the most important attempts at defining the sentence:
The traditional, or common sense definition states that a sentence is a group of words that expresses a thought . The problem comes in defining what a thought is. The phrase an egg expresses a thought but is it a sentence? A sentence like I closed the door because it was cold expresses two thoughts and yet it is one sentence.
Another definition is that a sentence is a group of words expressing a topic (old information) and some comment (new information) about that topic: John left. (Notice how intonation--which is a part of phonology--interacts closely with syntax in delimiting topic from comment--another example of the grammatical interconnectedness of all the so called levels of language.) The problem with the topic-comment definition is that many sentences have no clear topic and comment structure: It's raining.
The grammatical definition of the sentence is the largest unit to which syntactic rules can apply. In terms of syntactic categories, most sentences--at least in English-- can be divided into a subject and a predicate. This applies to sentences with or without a clear topic/comment structure: John ---left. Many sentences have no clear topic and comment structure: It--is raining. (The word it here is the so-called dummy it used to fill the subject slot for impersonal verbs in English; cf. prshí, snezí.)
Another problem with grammatical, or syntactic, definitions of the sentence is that not all sentences--even in English--are divisible into subject and predicate. Some sentence types make no internal syntactic structure; there is no distinction between subject and predicate:
a) Emotive sentences such as Gee! Wow. Darn! Yes! No!
b) Imperatives: Go! Leave! Taxi! All aboard! Down with alcohol!
c) Elliptic sentences: Who took the car? John.
d) small talk phrases: Hello. Good-bye. Good morning.
In polysynthetic languages the single word serve as a complete sentence much more frequently. In such languages, morphology rather than syntax usually expresses the distinction between subject and predicate.
Syntax looks at the rules of a language, particularly how the various parts of sentences go together. While similar to morphology, which looks at how the smallest meaningful linguistic units, called morphemes, are formed into complete words, syntax examines how fully formed words fit together to create complete and understandable sentences. Understanding a language's syntax is important for understanding what makes a sentence grammatically correct.
The Purpose of Syntax
Linguists and grammarians who study syntax are not necessarily prescriptivist, which means they do not attempt to tell people how to "correctly" form a sentence. Rather, they are descriptivist, in that they look at how people actually speak and then create rules that describe what a language community considers grammatical or non-grammatical. Syntax deals with a number of elements, all of which help to facilitate being understood through language. Without rules, there would be no foundation from which to discern meaning from a bunch of words strung together; whereas these rules allow for a virtually infinite number of sentences.
Word Order in Language Construction
Perhaps the most important aspect of syntax is how the various parts of speech connect together. Every language has rules that dictate where certain types of words can be used in a sentence, and how to interpret the resulting sentence. A new language learner has to understand how this word order is structured, which can be difficult for someone used to a different language.
In English, the basic order is "Subject-Verb-Object;" this means that in a simple sentence, the first noun phrase is the subject, and the subsequent predicate includes the verb phrase and may contain an object. This allows English speakers to understand that in the sentence "The boy kicked the ball," the "boy" is the subject, and therefore the one doing the kicking, whereas the "ball" is the object being kicked. If someone wrote the sentence, "The ball kicked the boy," the meaning would be reversed somewhat strangely, and "Kicked the ball the boy," would immediately be recognized as a violation of basic syntactical order and read as nonsense.
Not all languages follow this same order, however. In Spanish, for example, the order of the words is more flexible in most cases, and serves to shift the emphasis of a sentence rather than its meaning. Similarly, adjectives in English usually precede the word they describe, while they come after the described word in languages such as French.
Name : Diyah Ayu PN
Class : 2011 A
The field of syntax looks at the mental 'rules' that we have for forming sentences and phrases. In English, for instance, it is grammatical to say 'I speak English', but ungrammatical to say 'English speak I' — this is because of a rule which says that subjects normally precede verbs which precede the object.
Academic syntacticians often study either the grammar of a particular language (e.g. English Grammar), or study the various theories of a Generative Grammar — a theory which claims there is a universal underlying grammar in our heads, which different languages activate in different ways. The main concern of Generative Grammar is discovering the grammatical rules which apply to all languages, and determining how the manifest differences in world languages can be accounted for.
However, there are many competing theories which do not make — or at least remain neutral on — such a strong claim regarding a universal grammar. They include construction grammar, and cognitive linguistics. There are a number of grammatical theories that stand more or less in opposition to the perspectives of generative grammar, for example
• théorie des opérations enonciatives
• systemic functional grammar
• word grammar
At the level of syntax, it is important to understand the distinction between grammaticality and semantic soundness. Sentences such as Me Tarzan, you Jane clearly make sense even though they sound "wrong". Conversely, the sentence Colorless green ideas sleep furiously (famously created by Noam Chomsky) doesn't sound "wrong" in the way the last sentence did, but it is hard to imagine anything which it would describe. We can say that these two aspects of acceptability vary independently: grammaticality, or well-formedness, gives the rules for how sentences must be constructed, but does not restrict their content, while semantic acceptibility may occur even in ill-formed sentences. When we say that something may occur grammatically, we mean that well-formedness is preserved, with complete disregard for semantics. The basic units of syntax are words and clitics. A word is the smallest free form in language that can be spoken in isolation or in varying positions within a sentence and retain its semantic and pragmatic content, which we can informally refer to as its meaning. A clitic is syntactically indistinguishable from a word, but, unlike a word, it is phonologically dependent upon some other constituent of a sentence.
In general, words and clitics can be divided into groups called lexical categories. This grouping is accomplished by observing similarities in words and clitics according to several factors, such as their distribution within a sentence, the types of affixes that can be attached to them, and the type of meaning they express. All of these factors can be taken into account together because words and clitics that correlate well with each other according to one factor generally also correlate well according to the others. While classifications according to meaning or inflection can sometimes remain subject to significant ambiguity, tests of distribution are generally very reliable. Words of certain categories are restricted to occurring or not occurring alongside words of other specific categories, and these restrictions can allow simple determinations of category based on distributions to be made.
Name : Indah Hermina
Class : 2011 A
What is syntax?
Syntax is the discipline that examines the rules of a language that dictate how the various parts of sentences go together. While morphology looks at how individual sounds are formed into complete words, syntax looks at how those words are formed into complete sentences.
Here it might be pertinent to mention a couple of other definitions of the term grammar that are widely used. Grammar may be separated into two common broad categories: descriptive and prescriptive. Recall that we were first introduced to these concepts in module 1.
1. A descriptive grammar is a description of the structure of a language in all its aspects--morphology, syntax, phonology--which attempts do portray the language as accurately as possible in terms of how it is naturally used by speakers.
As you will remember from Module 1, linguists are concerned with descriptive grammar. A descriptive grammar looks at the grammar of any spoken language or dialect as it actually exists, judging whether a sentence is grammatical or not based on the rules of the speech group in which it is spoken, rather than an arbitrary set of rules.
For example, in many speech communities, a sentence such as, "He done got thrown off the horse," would be entirely grammatical, and an entire set of rules of grammar can be deduced that explain why that formation is grammatical. In another speech community, however, this sentence might be considered ungrammatical, while a version such as, "Him isa throwed offa horse," would be the grammatical version. In yet another speech community, both would be considered ungrammatical, with only a version such as, "He was thrown off of the horse," being considered acceptable.
2. A prescriptive grammar assigns value judgments to the ways native speakers form words or sentences. Prescriptive grammars do not attempt to describe the language as it is naturally spoken but rather to tell the speakers how they best should speak it.
People teaching a specific language, such as English, might tend towards a more prescriptive approach. A prescriptive grammar looks at the norms of speech as given by authoritative sources, such as an upper-class or academic subculture, and creates strict rules by which all speech within that language must abide to be considered grammatical.
Few linguists take a prescriptive approach to grammar in the modern age, preferring to describe language as it exists in a given speech community.
Many teachers, grammar mavens, and pedagogues in general still have a prescriptive approach towards grammar, however, holding to standardized rules as being the only proper way to speak. Grammars of foreign languages written for second language learners fall in between the other two types. They represent attempts to describe a language as it is spoken by natives in order to tell non-natives how to speak it.
When thinking of grammar in the general, descriptive sense, remember that there is no absolute division between syntax, morphology, and phonology. Even in the same language these so called levels of language are not completely separate.
Name : Risa Silfia
Class : 2011 A
SITI MA'RIFATUL AMALIYYAH
2011-B
11188203051
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of the structure of a sentence and ordering of its elements. The word syntax itself derives from Greek words meaning ‘together’ or ‘arrangement’, but also the modern syntactic tradition and investigations have their roots in the findings of ancient Greeks. One of such ‘traditional’ tasks of linguists dealing with syntax was to describe the organization of the parts of a sentence, however, with the development of this branch of linguistics, and especially in contemporary inquiries the scope of interest has widened.
Yet, before the most recent theories are presented the very concept of a ‘sentence’ needs clarification. As a general rule, a sentence is described as a full formulation of an idea, nevertheless, there are numerous examples of thoughts expressed in a language, and yet in not fully developed sentences, like: ‘Go!’, or ‘Coffee?’. That is why two different approaches to defining sentences have emerged: notional which characterizes a sentence as an expression of a single idea, and formal focusing on the manners of constructing sentences, and patterns within them.
As a consequence of the differences in the approaches a division of sentences on the basis of their complexity was created. And thus sentences are either major, or minor. Major sentences are those which can be modified or analyzed further into patterns of elements. They are further subdivided into simple sentences, which consist of only one clause, or multiple sentences consisting of two or more clauses. On the other hand, minor sentences cannot be broken down into patterns of elements, because they use ‘abnormal’ patterns, in that they do not follow the rules of grammar. Some types of minor sentences include: abbreviated forms, such as ‘wish you were here’; proverbs: ‘easy come, easy go’; emotional noises: ‘ouch!’, ‘ugh!’; formulae: ‘how do you do?’.
Seeing all those difficulties an American linguist Noam Chomsky came up with an idea of generative grammar, which was supposed to look at the grammar of language from the mathematical point of view, constructing a limited number of rules describing all the possible patterns of forming correct sentences. Moreover, what Chomsky showed was the difference between the deep and surface structure of a sentence. What he called the surface structure of a sentence was its grammatical form, and the deep structure was understood as the meaning of sentence. For example the two sentences: I know Mary. and Mary knows me. differ in their surface structure, but not in their deep structure. Still, it is the deep structure that might cause the biggest problems. Certain sentences, although easily understood, can be ambiguous because of their structure, like for instance He hit a guy with a car. This sentence can mean that he was driving a car and hit someone, or that he hit somebody who had a car.
Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages. Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its goal the construction of a grammar that can be viewed as a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under analysis."
(Noam Chomsky, Syntactic Structures, 1971)
Syntactic Changes in English
"Syntactic change--change in the form and order of words--is . . . sometimes described as 'an elusive process as compared to sound change.' Its apparently puzzling nature is partly due to its variety. Word endings can be modified. Chaucer's line And smale foweles maken melodye shows that English has changed several of them in the last 600 years. The behaviour of verbs can alter. Middle English I kan a noble tale 'I know a fine story' reveals that can could once be used as a main verb with a direct object. And word order may switch. The proverb Whoever loved that loved not at first sight? indicates that English negatives could once be placed after main verbs. These are just a random sample of syntactic changes which have occurred in English in the last half-millennium or so."
(Jean Aitchison, Language Change: Progress or Decay? 3rd ed. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2001)
NAME: DEWI MASITOH
CLASS: 2011 C
In linguistics, syntax (from Ancient Greek σύνταξις "arrangement" from σύν syn, "together", and τάξις táxis, "an ordering") is "the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages".
In addition to referring to the overarching discipline, the term syntax is also used to refer directly to the rules and principles that govern the sentence structure of any individual language, for example in "the syntax of Modern Irish." Modern research in syntax attempts to describe languages in terms of such rules. Many professionals in this discipline attempt to find general rules that apply to all natural languages.
The term syntax is also used to refer to the rules governing the behavior of mathematical systems, such as formal languages used in logic.
Works on grammar were written long before modern syntax came about; the Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini is often cited as an example of a premodern work that approaches the sophistication of a modern syntactic theory.[2] In the West, the school of thought that came to be known as "traditional grammar" began with the work of Dionysius Thrax.
For centuries, work in syntax was dominated by a framework known as grammaire générale, first expounded in 1660 by Antoine Arnauld in a book of the same title. This system took as its basic premise the assumption that language is a direct reflection of thought processes and therefore there is a single, most natural way to express a thought. That way, coincidentally, was exactly the way it was expressed in French.
However, in the 19th century, with the development of historical-comparative linguistics, linguists began to realize the sheer diversity of human language, and to question fundamental assumptions about the relationship between language and logic. It became apparent that there was no such thing as the most natural way to express a thought, and therefore logic could no longer be relied upon as a basis for studying the structure of language.
The Port-Royal grammar modeled the study of syntax upon that of logic (indeed, large parts of the Port-Royal Logic were copied or adapted from the Grammaire générale[3]). Syntactic categories were identified with logical ones, and all sentences were analyzed in terms of "Subject – Copula – Predicate". Initially, this view was adopted even by the early comparative linguists such as Franz Bopp.
The central role of syntax within theoretical linguistics became clear only in the 20th century, which could reasonably be called the "century of syntactic theory" as far as linguistics is concerned. For a detailed and critical survey of the history of syntax in the last two centuries, see the monumental work by Giorgio Graffi (2001).
There are a number of theoretical approaches to the discipline of syntax. One school of thought, founded in the works of Derek Bickerton,[5] sees syntax as a branch of biology, since it conceives of syntax as the study of linguistic knowledge as embodied in the human mind. Other linguists (e.g. Gerald Gazdar) take a more Platonistic view, since they regard syntax to be the study of an abstract formal system.[6] Yet others (e.g. Joseph Greenberg) consider grammar a taxonomical device to reach broad generalizations across languages.
Name : Ella Melinda Isyaroh
Class : 2011 A
ZUHROTUL ULFIAH
2011-B
11188203050
Syntax is the grammatical arrangements of words in sentences. inverted syntax. Syntax could also be seen as the study of these rules.
In linguistics, the study of the rules that govern the ways in which words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is one of the major components of grammar.
A syntax is just a grammatical order or arrangement of words in a sentence. It's a study of rules for constructing acceptable sentences. In computer language if you receive a syntax error, it means you didn't enter a command in it's correct.
In linguistics, the study of the rules that govern the ways in which words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is one of the major components of grammar
"Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages. Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its goal the construction of a grammar that can be viewed as a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under analysis."
The Role of Syntax in Language
This section is an introduction to syntax in language as far as it is relevant to the content of this book. It is not meant to be a rigorous discussion of linguistics. What I am describing is a simple orthodox view of the grammar of language. Some more complex models are discussed by linguists but these are beyond the scope of this description. This section is included for those readers who would like a brief overview without having to refer separately to a linguistics textbook. Those who would like to read more about the various linguistic theories should refer to the bibliography for references to linguistics books and to sites on the web covering linguistic topics
The Representations of Syntax
In Linguistics, the syntax of sentences can be described by different methods, for instance, for the following sentence:
"The boy kicked the ball"
The syntax can be described, by the following methods:
1. A statement of the correct sequence of the parts of speech (or Syntactic Categories):
Subject is followed by verb is followed by object.
In the above example,
subject = "The boy" (article followed by noun)
verb = "kicked"
object = "The ball" (article followed by noun)
Syntax is one of the major components of grammar. The word syntax derives from the Greek word syntaxis, which means arrangement. Just like morphology, syntax is not concerned with what a sentence means, in the sense of what it tells us about the world, but with the internal structure of units and their relations to one another. In other words, syntax asks which sentences are in accord with the grammatical rules imposed by a particular language and which aren’t. When talking about sentences as units in grammar, it is important to recognize that we idealize their status to some extent. Spoken language often consists of incomplete utterances and seemingly disjointed pieces, but this does not make it ‘less grammatical’. In polysynthetic languages the single word serve as a complete sentence much more frequently. In such languages, morphology rather than syntax usually expresses the distinction between subject and predicate.
Linguists and grammarians who study syntax are not necessarily prescriptivist, which means they do not attempt to tell people how to "correctly" form a sentence. Rather, they are descriptivist, in that they look at how people actually speak and then create rules that describe what a language community considers grammatical or non-grammatical. Syntax deals with a number of elements, all of which help to facilitate being understood through language. Without rules, there would be no foundation from which to discern meaning from a bunch of words strung together; whereas these rules allow for a virtually infinite number of sentences.
Rizki Aulia Rahma 2011 C / 12
In linguistics, the study of the rules that govern the ways in which words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is one of the major components of grammar.
The arrangement of words in a sentence. Adjective: syntactic.
syntax (from Ancient Greek "arrangement" , "together", and, "an ordering") is "the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages".
"Within traditional grammar, the syntax of a language is described in terms of a taxonomy (i.e. the classificatory list) of the range of different types of syntactic structures found in the language. The central assumption underpinning syntactic analysis in traditional grammar is that phrases and sentences are built up of a series of constituents (i.e. syntactic units), each of which belongs to a specific grammatical category and serves a specific grammatical function. Given this assumption, the task of the linguist analysing the syntactic structure of any given type of sentence is to identify each of the constituents in the sentence, and (for each constituent) to say what category it belongs to and what function it serves. . . .
Simple syntax-a simple sentence is a single independent clause. It is one complete sentence.
Example: The boy washed his hands.
Subject= boy
Verb=washed
Compound syntax-a compound sentence is made up of two or more independent clauses. It is a string of complete sentences put together. Because compound sentences are made up of complete sentences, they need to have semicolons between them rather than just periods.
Example: The boy washed his hands; they were dirty from gardening.
Subject=boy verb=washed; subject=they verb=were
NAME :FATIMATUS ZAHRO
CLASS : 2011/B
In linguistics, the study of the rules that govern the ways in which words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is one of the major components of grammar.
The arrangement of words in a sentence. Adjective: syntactic.
syntax (from Ancient Greek "arrangement" , "together", and, "an ordering") is "the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages".
"Within traditional grammar, the syntax of a language is described in terms of a taxonomy (i.e. the classificatory list) of the range of different types of syntactic structures found in the language. The central assumption underpinning syntactic analysis in traditional grammar is that phrases and sentences are built up of a series of constituents (i.e. syntactic units), each of which belongs to a specific grammatical category and serves a specific grammatical function. Given this assumption, the task of the linguist analysing the syntactic structure of any given type of sentence is to identify each of the constituents in the sentence, and (for each constituent) to say what category it belongs to and what function it serves. . . .
Simple syntax-a simple sentence is a single independent clause. It is one complete sentence.
Example: The boy washed his hands.
Subject= boy
Verb=washed
Compound syntax-a compound sentence is made up of two or more independent clauses. It is a string of complete sentences put together. Because compound sentences are made up of complete sentences, they need to have semicolons between them rather than just periods.
Example: The boy washed his hands; they were dirty from gardening.
Subject=boy verb=washed; subject=they verb=were
NAME : FATIMATUS ZAHRO
CLASS : 2011/B
Fakhruddin (2009/A)
Mengulang di 2011/C..
Basically, syntax is the rules by which signs are combined to make statements. If you consider the words of a language to be its signs, then its syntax is the rules which put signs together to make statements, ask questions, and produce other utterances. Syntax incorporates the grammar of phrases, clauses, and sentences. Producing and uttering sentences is an important part of how we make sense of our world. We articulate the meaning of our experience in words; in the process of articulate, we make (or discover) the meaning of the experience. This process is similar to the ways in which we intrepret literature. The syntax the exact structure of what we write is an essential part of its meaning. Still, it is the deep structure that might cause the biggest problems. Certain sentences, although easily understood, can be ambiguous because of their structure.
syn·tax
noun
1.
Linguistics .
a.
the study of the rules for the formation of grammatical sentences in a language.
b.
the study of the patterns of formation of sentences and phrases from words.
c.
the rules or patterns so studied: English syntax.
d.
a presentation of these: a syntax of English.
e.
an instance of these: the syntax of a sentence.
2.
Logic .
a.
that branch of modern logic that studies the various kinds of signs that occur in a system and the possible arrangements of those signs, complete abstraction being made of the meaning of the signs.
b.
the outcome of such a study when directed upon a specified language.
3.
a system or orderly arrangement.
NAME:KHOLIFATUL WIDAD
CLASS:C
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of the structure of a sentence and ordering of its elements. The word syntax itself derives from Greek words meaning ‘together’ or ‘arrangement’, but also the modern syntactic tradition and investigations have their roots in the findings of ancient Greeks. One of such ‘traditional’ tasks of linguists dealing with syntax was to describe the organization of the parts of a sentence, however, with the development of this branch of linguistics, and especially in contemporary inquiries the scope of interest has widened.
example:
the boy kicked the ball threw it.
the boy kicked the ball,then threw it.
Name:wattini
Class:2011 c
EKA MAKHNUNA OCTAVIANI
ENGLISH A 2011
Syntax is the study of the combinatorics of units of language (wuthout reference meaning),a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of the structure of a sentence and ordering of its elements.Syntax is one of the major components of grammar.
A syntax is just a grammatical order or arrangement of words in a sentence. It's a study of rules for constructing acceptable sentences. In computer language if you receive a syntax error, it means you didn't enter a command in it's correct.The Role of Syntax in Language
This section is an introduction to syntax in language as far as it is relevant to the content of this book. It is not meant to be a rigorous discussion of linguistics. What I am describing is a simple orthodox view of the grammar of language. Some more complex models are discussed by linguists but these are beyond the scope of this description. This section is included for those readers who would like a brief overview without having to refer separately to a linguistics textbook. Those who would like to read more about the various linguistic theories should refer to the bibliography for references to linguistics books and to sites on the web covering linguistic topics
The Representations of Syntax
In Linguistics, the syntax of sentences can be described by different methods, for instance, for the following sentence:
"The boy kicked the ball".A statement of the correct sequence of the parts of speech (or Syntactic Categories):
Subject is followed by verb is followed by object.
In the above example,
subject = "The boy" (article followed by noun)
verb = "kicked"
object = "The ball" (article followed by noun).
Syntax in linguistics is the study of how abstract units of language such as words acceptably combine into larger grammatical structures such as phrases and sentences. Syntacticians attempt to define rules which describe the formation such structures and disallow others, either in the grammar of a specific language, or in all languages.
Example:
clever girl and boys go to university.
small dogs and cats do not need much exercise.
Name:watzaitun
class:2011 C
syntax is Arrangement of words in sentences, clauses, and phrases, and the study of the formation of sentences and the relationship of their component parts. In English, the main device for showing this relationship is word order; for example, “The boy loves his dog” follows standard subject-verb-object word order, and switching the order of such a sentence would change the meaning or make the sentence meaningless. Word order is much more flexible in languages such as Latin, in which word endings indicate the case of a noun or adjective; such inflections make it unnecessary to rely on word order to indicate a word's function in the sentence.
NAME:JAMILATUL KHUSNIA
CLASS:2011.C
DEVI ALVIANITA 2011 A / 29
Syntax revolves around words. More specifically it focuses on how words are arranged in a sentence. Words can be arranged regularly or irregularly for a variety of reasons to fulfill a purpose. Examining syntax can reveal a lot about the writer, such as skill, culture and meaning. Syntax can be used to convey a simple message or to convey something deeper and more poetic.
Function of Syntax
• Syntax refers to sentence structure. It is basically how words are arranged in a sentence and how a writer has created a pattern with the words. Syntax shows a writer's style by showing how he creates patterns of words. Use of syntax can also show a writer's skill because word patterns and sentence structures need to be modified at times to fit certain types of writing. Often writers like to experiment with syntax in their writing to provide emphasis or to create a deeper meaning using word patterns. Many examples follow to show the function of syntax.
Types of Syntax
• Regular or normal syntax consists of a sentence with a basic pattern of a subject, verb and object. This pattern is often fixed in normal syntax, meaning that the order of words in a sentence must be subject, verb, object. A simple example: The girl held a puppy. Another type of syntax is irregular syntax, in which writers place words in varying order to create emphasis or to explore further meaning in their words. An example of irregular syntax from the Thomas Hardy poem "The Man He Killed": "Yes; quaint and curious war is!"
yudhistira 2008/ A / 39
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of the structure of a sentence and ordering of its elements. The word syntax itself derives from Greek words meaning ‘together’ or ‘arrangement’, but also the modern syntactic tradition and investigations have their roots in the findings of ancient Greeks. One of such ‘traditional’ tasks of linguists dealing with syntax was to describe the organization of the parts of a sentence, however, with the development of this branch of linguistics, and especially in contemporary inquiries the scope of interest has widened.
Yet, before the most recent theories are presented the very concept of a ‘sentence’ needs clarification. As a general rule, a sentence is described as a full formulation of an idea, nevertheless, there are numerous examples of thoughts expressed in a language, and yet in not fully developed sentences, like: ‘Go!’, or ‘Coffee?’. That is why two different approaches to defining sentences have emerged: notional which characterizes a sentence as an expression of a single idea, and formal focusing on the manners of constructing sentences, and patterns within them.
As a consequence of the differences in the approaches a division of sentences on the basis of their complexity was created. And thus sentences are either major, or minor. Major sentences are those which can be modified or analyzed further into patterns of elements. They are further subdivided into simple sentences, which consist of only one clause, or multiple sentences consisting of two or more clauses. On the other hand, minor sentences cannot be broken down into patterns of elements, because they use ‘abnormal’ patterns, in that they do not follow the rules of grammar. Some types of minor sentences include: abbreviated forms, such as ‘wish you were here’; proverbs: ‘easy come, easy go’; emotional noises: ‘ouch!’, ‘ugh!’; formulae: ‘how do you do?’.
This section is an introduction to syntax in language as far as it is relevant to the content of this book. It is not meant to be a rigorous discussion of linguistics. What I am describing is a simple orthodox view of the grammar of language. Some more complex models are discussed by linguists but these are beyond the scope of this description. This section is included for those readers who would like a brief overview without having to refer separately to a linguistics textbook. Those who would like to read more about the various linguistic theories should refer to the bibliography for references to linguistics books and to sites on the web covering linguistic topics.
Languages have rules. The rules of a language are called the grammar. The reason for these rules is that a person needs to be able to speak an indeterminately large number of sentences in a lifetime. The effort would be impossibly great if each sentence had to be learnt separately.
TITA LENA AGUSTIN 2011 A/ 23
syntax [ˈsɪntæks]
n
1. (Linguistics) the branch of linguistics that deals with the grammatical arrangement of words and morphemes in the sentences of a language or of languages in general
2. (Linguistics) the totality of facts about the grammatical arrangement of words in a language
3. (Linguistics) a systematic statement of the rules governing the grammatical arrangement of words and morphemes in a language
4. (Philosophy / Logic) Logic a systematic statement of the rules governing the properly formed formulas of a logical system
5. any orderly arrangement or system
noun 1. syntax - the grammatical arrangement of words in sentences
phrase structure, sentence structure
structure - the complex composition of knowledge as elements and their combinations; "his lectures have no structure"
linguistics - the scientific study of language
2. syntax - a systematic orderly arrangement
system, scheme - a group of independent but interrelated elements comprising a unified whole; "a vast system of production and distribution and consumption keep the country going"
3. syntax - studies of the rules for forming admissible sentences
linguistics - the scientific study of language
grammar - the branch of linguistics that deals with syntax and morphology (and sometimes also deals with semantics)
generative grammar - (linguistics) a type of grammar that describes syntax in terms of a set of logical rules that can generate all and only the infinite number of grammatical sentences in a language and assigns them all the correct structural description
SITI MUYASSAROH LATIFATUL L 2011 A / 26
Basically, syntax is the rules by which signs are combined to make statements. If you consider the words of a language to be its signs, then its syntax is the rules which put signs together to make statements, ask questions, and produce other utterances.
Syntax incorporates the grammar of phrases, clauses, and sentences. Producing and uttering sentences is an important part of how we make sense of our world. We articulate the meaning of our experience in words; in the process of articulate, we make (or discover) the meaning of the experience. This process is similar to the ways in which we intrepret literature.
Every spoken language has a general set of rules for how words and sentences should be structured. These rules are collectively known as the language syntax. In computer programming, syntax serves the same purpose, defining how declarations, functions, commands, and other statements should be arranged.
Many computer programming languages share similar syntax rules, while others have a unique syntax design. For example, C and Java use a similar syntax, while Perl has many characteristics that are not seen in either the C or Java languages.
A program's source code must have correct syntax in order to compile correctly and be made into a program. In fact, it must have perfect syntax, or the program will fail to compile and produce a "syntax error." A syntax error can be as simple as a missing parenthesis or a forgotten semicolon at the end of a statement. Even these small errors will keep the source code from compiling.
Fortunately, most integrated development environments (IDEs) include a parser, which detects syntax errors within the source code. Modern parsers can even highlight syntax errors before a program is compiled, making it easy for the programmer to locate and fix them.
Nama: Ummul Usawatun KHasanah
Kelas: 2011 A
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of the structure of a sentence and ordering of its elements. The word syntax itself derives from Greek words meaning ‘together’ or ‘arrangement’, but also the modern syntactic tradition and investigations have their roots in the findings of ancient Greeks. One of such ‘traditional’ tasks of linguists dealing with syntax was to describe the organization of the parts of a sentence, however, with the development of this branch of linguistics, and especially in contemporary inquiries the scope of interest has widened.
Yet, before the most recent theories are presented the very concept of a ‘sentence’ needs clarification. As a general rule, a sentence is described as a full formulation of an idea, nevertheless, there are numerous examples of thoughts expressed in a language, and yet in not fully developed sentences, like: ‘Go!’, or ‘Coffee?’. That is why two different approaches to defining sentences have emerged: notional which characterizes a sentence as an expression of a single idea, and formal focusing on the manners of constructing sentences, and patterns within them.
As a consequence of the differences in the approaches a division of sentences on the basis of their complexity was created. And thus sentences are either major, or minor. Major sentences ard those which can be modified or analyzed further into patterns of elements. They are further subdivided into simple sentences, which consist of only one clause, or multiple sentences consisting of two or more clauses. On the other hand, minor sentences cannot be broken down into patterns of elements, because they use ‘abnormal’ patterns, in that they do not follow the rules of grammar. Some types of minor sentences include: abbreviated forms, such as ‘wish you were here’; proverbs: ‘easy come, easy go’; emotional noises: ‘ouch!’, ‘ugh!’; formulae: ‘how do you do?’.
Seeing all those difficulties an American linguist Noam Chomsky came up with an idea of generative grammar, which was supposed to look at the grammar of language from the mathematical point of view, constructing a limited number of rules describing all the possible patterns of forming correct sentences. Moreover, what Chomsky showed was the difference between the deep and surface structure of a sentence. What he called the surface structure of a sentence was its grammatical form, and the deep structure was understood as the meaning of sentence. For example the two sentences: I know Mary. and Mary knows me. differ in their surface structure, but not in their deep structure. Still, it is the deep structure that might cause the biggest problems. Certain sentences, although easily understood, can be ambiguous because of their structure, like for instance He hit a guy with a car. This sentence can mean that he was driving a car and hit someone, or that he hit somebody who had a car.
The field of syntax looks at the mental 'rules' that we have for forming sentences and phrases. In English, for instance, it is grammatical to say 'I speak English', but ungrammatical to say 'English speak I' — this is because of a rule which says that subjects normally precede verbs which precede the object.
Academic syntacticians often study either the grammar of a particular language (e.g. English Grammar), or study the various theories of a Generative Grammar — a theory which claims there is a universal underlying grammar in our heads, which different languages activate in different ways. The main concern of Generative Grammar is discovering the grammatical rules which apply to all languages, and determining how the manifest differences in world languages can be accounted for.
However, there are many competing theories which do not make — or at least remain neutral on — such a strong claim regarding a universal grammar. They include construction grammar, and cognitive linguistics. There are a number of grammatical theories that stand more or less in opposition to the perspectives of generative grammar, for example
• théorie des opérations enonciatives
• systemic functional grammar
• word grammar
At the level of syntax, it is important to understand the distinction between grammaticality and semantic soundness. Sentences such as Me Tarzan, you Jane clearly make sense even though they sound "wrong". Conversely, the sentence Colorless green ideas sleep furiously (famously created by Noam Chomsky) doesn't sound "wrong" in the way the last sentence did, but it is hard to imagine anything which it would describe. We can say that these two aspects of acceptability vary independently: grammaticality, or well-formedness, gives the rules for how sentences must be constructed, but does not restrict their content, while semantic acceptibility may occur even in ill-formed sentences. When we say that something may occur grammatically, we mean that well-formedness is preserved, with complete disregard for semantics. The basic units of syntax are words and clitics. A word is the smallest free form in language that can be spoken in isolation or in varying positions within a sentence and retain its semantic and pragmatic content, which we can informally refer to as its meaning. A clitic is syntactically indistinguishable from a word, but, unlike a word, it is phonologically dependent upon some other constituent of a sentence.
In general, words and clitics can be divided into groups called lexical categories. This grouping is accomplished by observing similarities in words and clitics according to several factors, such as their distribution within a sentence, the types of affixes that can be attached to them, and the type of meaning they express. All of these factors can be taken into account together because words and clitics that correlate well with each other according to one factor generally also correlate well according to the others. While classifications according to meaning or inflection can sometimes remain subject to significant ambiguity, tests of distribution are generally very reliable. Words of certain categories are restricted to occurring or not occurring alongside words of other specific categories, and these restrictions can allow simple determinations of category based on distributions to be made.
NAME:SAGITA FANNY NOVANTYA
CLASS:2011A
syntax (from Ancient Greek σύνταξις "arrangement" from σύν syn, "together", and τάξις táxis, "an ordering") is "the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages".[1]
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of the structure of a sentence and ordering of its elements. The word syntax itself derives from Greek words meaning ‘together’ or ‘arrangement’, but also the modern syntactic tradition and investigations have their roots in the findings of ancient Greeks. One of such ‘traditional’ tasks of linguists dealing with syntax was to describe the organization of the parts of a sentence, however, with the development of this branch of linguistics, and especially in contemporary inquiries the scope of interest has widened.
Yet, before the most recent theories are presented the very concept of a ‘sentence’ needs clarification. As a general rule, a sentence is described as a full formulation of an idea, nevertheless, there are numerous examples of thoughts expressed in a language, and yet in not fully developed sentences, like: ‘Go!’, or ‘Coffee?’. That is why two different approaches to defining sentences have emerged: notional which characterizes a sentence as an expression of a single idea, and formal focusing on the manners of constructing sentences, and patterns within them.
As a consequence of the differences in the approaches a division of sentences on the basis of their complexity was created. And thus sentences are either major, or minor. Major sentences are those which can be modified or analyzed further into patterns of elements. They are further subdivided into simple sentences, which consist of only one clause, or multiple sentences consisting of two or more clauses. On the other hand, minor sentences cannot be broken down into patterns of elements, because they use ‘abnormal’ patterns, in that they do not follow the rules of grammar. Some types of minor sentences include: abbreviated forms, such as ‘wish you were here’; proverbs: ‘easy come, easy go’; emotional noises: ‘ouch!’, ‘ugh!’; formulae: ‘how do you do?’.
Seeing all those difficulties an American linguist Noam Chomsky came up with an idea of generative grammar, which was supposed to look at the grammar of language from the mathematical point of view, constructing a limited number of rules describing all the possible patterns of forming correct sentences. Moreover, what Chomsky showed was the difference between the deep and surface structure of a sentence. What he called the surface structure of a sentence was its grammatical form, and the deep structure was understood as the meaning of sentence. For example the two sentences: I know Mary. and Mary knows me. differ in their surface structure, but not in their deep structure. Still, it is the deep structure that might cause the biggest problems. Certain sentences, although easily understood, can be ambiguous because of their structure, like for instance He hit a guy with a car. This sentence can mean that he was driving a car and hit someone, or that he hit somebody who had a car.
Syntactic Function
The traditional approach to syntactic function identifies constituents of the sentence, states the part of speech each word belongs to, describes theinflexion involved, and explains the relationship each word related to the others.According to its relation to other constituents, a constituent may serve certain syntactic function ina clause
Name : titik mukaromah
class: 2011 (A)
name : marita fitriani
class : 2011A / 03
"Within traditional grammar, the syntax of a language is described in terms of a taxonomy (i.e. the classificatory list) of the range of different types of syntactic structures found in the language. The central assumption underpinning syntactic analysis in traditional grammar is that phrases and sentences are built up of a series of constituents (i.e. syntactic units), each of which belongs to a specific grammatical category and serves a specific grammatical function. Given this assumption, the task of the linguist analysing the syntactic structure of any given type of sentence is to identify each of the constituents in the sentence, and (for each constituent) to say what category it belongs to and what function it serves. . . .
"In contrast to the taxonomic approach adopted in traditional grammar, [Noam] Chomsky takes a cognitive approach to the study of grammar. For Chomsky, the goal of the linguist is to determine what it is that native speakers know about their native language which enables them to speak and understand the language fluently: hence, the study of language is part of the wider study of cognition (i.e. what human beings know). In a fairly obvious sense, any native speaker of a language can be said to know the grammar of his or her native language."
(Andrew Radford, English Syntax: An Introduction. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2004)
"Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages. Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its goal the construction of a grammar that can be viewed as a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under analysis."
(Noam Chomsky, Syntactic Structures, 1971)
Syntactic Changes in English
"Syntactic change--change in the form and order of words--is . . . sometimes described as 'an elusive process as compared to sound change.' Its apparently puzzling nature is partly due to its variety. Word endings can be modified. Chaucer's line And smale foweles maken melodye shows that English has changed several of them in the last 600 years. The behaviour of verbs can alter. Middle English I kan a noble tale 'I know a fine story' reveals that can could once be used as a main verb with a direct object. And word order may switch. The proverb Whoever loved that loved not at first sight? indicates that English negatives could once be placed after main verbs. These are just a random sample of syntactic changes which have occurred in English in the last half-millennium or so."
(Jean Aitchison, Language Change: Progress or Decay? 3rd ed. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2001)
William Cobbett on Syntax (1818)
"Syntax is a word which comes from the Greek. It means, in that language, the joining of several things together; and, as used by grammarians, it means those principles and rules which teach us how to put words together so as to form sentences. It means, in short, sentence-making. Having been taught by the rules of Etymology what are the relationships of words, how words grow out of each other, how they are varied in their letters in order to correspond with the variation in the circumstances to which they apply, Syntax will teach you how to give all your words their proper situations or places, when you come to put them together into sentences."
(William Cobbett, A Grammar of the English Language in a Series of Letters: Intended for the Use of Schools and of Young Persons in General, but More Especially for the Use of Soldiers, Sailors, Apprentices, and Plough-Boys, 1818)
nama :Lilik vidianti wahono
class : 2011 B
Syntax is the discipline that examines the rules of a language that dictate how the various parts of sentences go together. While morphology looks at how individual sounds are formed into complete words, syntax looks at how those words are formed into complete sentences.
Here it might be pertinent to mention a couple of other definitions of the term grammar that are widely used. Grammar may be separated into two common broad categories: descriptive and prescriptive. Recall that we were first introduced to these concepts in module 1.
1. A descriptive grammar is a description of the structure of a language in all its aspects--morphology, syntax, phonology--which attempts do portray the language as accurately as possible in terms of how it is naturally used by speakers.
As you will remember from Module 1, linguists are concerned with descriptive grammar. A descriptive grammar looks at the grammar of any spoken language or dialect as it actually exists, judging whether a sentence is grammatical or not based on the rules of the speech group in which it is spoken, rather than an arbitrary set of rules.
For example, in many speech communities, a sentence such as, "He done got thrown off the horse," would be entirely grammatical, and an entire set of rules of grammar can be deduced that explain why that formation is grammatical. In another speech community, however, this sentence might be considered ungrammatical, while a version such as, "Him isa throwed offa horse," would be the grammatical version. In yet another speech community, both would be considered ungrammatical, with only a version such as, "He was thrown off of the horse," being considered acceptable.
2. A prescriptive grammar assigns value judgments to the ways native speakers form words or sentences. Prescriptive grammars do not attempt to describe the language as it is naturally spoken but rather to tell the speakers how they best should speak it.
People teaching a specific language, such as English, might tend towards a more prescriptive approach. A prescriptive grammar looks at the norms of speech as given by authoritative sources, such as an upper-class or academic subculture, and creates strict rules by which all speech within that language must abide to be considered grammatical.
Few linguists take a prescriptive approach to grammar in the modern age, preferring to describe language as it exists in a given speech community.
Many teachers, grammar mavens, and pedagogues in general still have a prescriptive approach towards grammar, however, holding to standardized rules as being the only proper way to speak. Grammars of foreign languages written for second language learners fall in between the other two types. They represent attempts to describe a language as it is spoken by natives in order to tell non-natives how to speak it.
When thinking of grammar in the general, descriptive sense, remember that there is no absolute division between syntax, morphology, and phonology. Even in the same language these so called levels of language are not completely separate.
Nama : sigit wijayanto
Class : 2011 B
Syntax is the discipline that examines the rules of a language that dictate how the various parts of sentences go together. While morphology looks at how individual sounds are formed into complete words, syntax looks at how those words are formed into complete sentences.
Here it might be pertinent to mention a couple of other definitions of the term grammar that are widely used. Grammar may be separated into two common broad categories: descriptive and prescriptive. Recall that we were first introduced to these concepts in module 1.
1. A descriptive grammar is a description of the structure of a language in all its aspects--morphology, syntax, phonology--which attempts do portray the language as accurately as possible in terms of how it is naturally used by speakers.
As you will remember from Module 1, linguists are concerned with descriptive grammar. A descriptive grammar looks at the grammar of any spoken language or dialect as it actually exists, judging whether a sentence is grammatical or not based on the rules of the speech group in which it is spoken, rather than an arbitrary set of rules.
For example, in many speech communities, a sentence such as, "He done got thrown off the horse," would be entirely grammatical, and an entire set of rules of grammar can be deduced that explain why that formation is grammatical. In another speech community, however, this sentence might be considered ungrammatical, while a version such as, "Him isa throwed offa horse," would be the grammatical version. In yet another speech community, both would be considered ungrammatical, with only a version such as, "He was thrown off of the horse," being considered acceptable.
2. A prescriptive grammar assigns value judgments to the ways native speakers form words or sentences. Prescriptive grammars do not attempt to describe the language as it is naturally spoken but rather to tell the speakers how they best should speak it.
People teaching a specific language, such as English, might tend towards a more prescriptive approach. A prescriptive grammar looks at the norms of speech as given by authoritative sources, such as an upper-class or academic subculture, and creates strict rules by which all speech within that language must abide to be considered grammatical.
Few linguists take a prescriptive approach to grammar in the modern age, preferring to describe language as it exists in a given speech community.
Many teachers, grammar mavens, and pedagogues in general still have a prescriptive approach towards grammar, however, holding to standardized rules as being the only proper way to speak. Grammars of foreign languages written for second language learners fall in between the other two types. They represent attempts to describe a language as it is spoken by natives in order to tell non-natives how to speak it.
When thinking of grammar in the general, descriptive sense, remember that there is no absolute division between syntax, morphology, and phonology. Even in the same language these so called levels of language are not completely separate.
Nama : bagus buang s
Class : 2011 b
"Within traditional grammar, the syntax of a language is described in terms of a taxonomy (i.e. the classificatory list) of the range of different types of syntactic structures found in the language. The central assumption underpinning syntactic analysis in traditional grammar is that phrases and sentences are built up of a series of constituents (i.e. syntactic units), each of which belongs to a specific grammatical category and serves a specific grammatical function. Given this assumption, the task of the linguist analysing the syntactic structure of any given type of sentence is to identify each of the constituents in the sentence, and (for each constituent) to say what category it belongs to and what function it serves. . . .
"In contrast to the taxonomic approach adopted in traditional grammar, [Noam] Chomsky takes a cognitive approach to the study of grammar. For Chomsky, the goal of the linguist is to determine what it is that native speakers know about their native language which enables them to speak and understand the language fluently: hence, the study of language is part of the wider study of cognition (i.e. what human beings know). In a fairly obvious sense, any native speaker of a language can be said to know the grammar of his or her native language."
(Andrew Radford, English Syntax: An Introduction. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2004)
"Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages. Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its goal the construction of a grammar that can be viewed as a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under analysis."
(Noam Chomsky, Syntactic Structures, 1971)
Syntactic Changes in English
"Syntactic change--change in the form and order of words--is . . . sometimes described as 'an elusive process as compared to sound change.' Its apparently puzzling nature is partly due to its variety. Word endings can be modified. Chaucer's line And smale foweles maken melodye shows that English has changed several of them in the last 600 years. The behaviour of verbs can alter. Middle English I kan a noble tale 'I know a fine story' reveals that can could once be used as a main verb with a direct object. And word order may switch. The proverb Whoever loved that loved not at first sight? indicates that English negatives could once be placed after main verbs. These are just a random sample of syntactic changes which have occurred in English in the last half-millennium or so."
(Jean Aitchison, Language Change: Progress or Decay? 3rd ed. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2001)
William Cobbett on Syntax (1818)
"Syntax is a word which comes from the Greek. It means, in that language, the joining of several things together; and, as used by grammarians, it means those principles and rules which teach us how to put words together so as to form sentences. It means, in short, sentence-making. Having been taught by the rules of Etymology what are the relationships of words, how words grow out of each other, how they are varied in their letters in order to correspond with the variation in the circumstances to which they apply, Syntax will teach you how to give all your words their proper situations or places, when you come to put them together into sentences."
(William Cobbett, A Grammar of the English Language in a Series of Letters: Intended for the Use of Schools and of Young Persons in General, but More Especially for the Use of Soldiers, Sailors, Apprentices, and Plough-Boys, 1818)
nama M. Ikhwan abdiansya
klas 2011b
The field of syntax looks at the mental 'rules' that we have for forming sentences and phrases. In English, for instance, it is grammatical to say 'I speak English', but ungrammatical to say 'English speak I' — this is because of a rule which says that subjects normally precede verbs which precede the object.
Academic syntacticians often study either the grammar of a particular language (e.g. English Grammar), or study the various theories of a Generative Grammar — a theory which claims there is a universal underlying grammar in our heads, which different languages activate in different ways. The main concern of Generative Grammar is discovering the grammatical rules which apply to all languages, and determining how the manifest differences in world languages can be accounted for.
However, there are many competing theories which do not make — or at least remain neutral on — such a strong claim regarding a universal grammar. They include construction grammar, and cognitive linguistics. There are a number of grammatical theories that stand more or less in opposition to the perspectives of generative grammar, for example
• théorie des opérations enonciatives
• systemic functional grammar
• word grammar
At the level of syntax, it is important to understand the distinction between grammaticality and semantic soundness. Sentences such as Me Tarzan, you Jane clearly make sense even though they sound "wrong". Conversely, the sentence Colorless green ideas sleep furiously (famously created by Noam Chomsky) doesn't sound "wrong" in the way the last sentence did, but it is hard to imagine anything which it would describe. We can say that these two aspects of acceptability vary independently: grammaticality, or well-formedness, gives the rules for how sentences must be constructed, but does not restrict their content, while semantic acceptibility may occur even in ill-formed sentences. When we say that something may occur grammatically, we mean that well-formedness is preserved, with complete disregard for semantics. The basic units of syntax are words and clitics. A word is the smallest free form in language that can be spoken in isolation or in varying positions within a sentence and retain its semantic and pragmatic content, which we can informally refer to as its meaning. A clitic is syntactically indistinguishable from a word, but, unlike a word, it is phonologically dependent upon some other constituent of a sentence.
In general, words and clitics can be divided into groups called lexical categories. This grouping is accomplished by observing similarities in words and clitics according to several factors, such as their distribution within a sentence, the types of affixes that can be attached to them, and the type of meaning they express. All of these factors can be taken into account together because words and clitics that correlate well with each other according to one factor generally also correlate well according to the others. While classifications according to meaning or inflection can sometimes remain subject to significant ambiguity, tests of distribution are generally very reliable. Words of certain categories are restricted to occurring or not occurring alongside words of other specific categories, and these restrictions can allow simple determinations of category based on distributions to be made.
name : Indah Rahayuningtyas
class : 2011 A
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of the structure of a sentence and ordering of its elements. The word syntax itself derives from Greek words meaning ‘together’ or ‘arrangement’, but also the modern syntactic tradition and investigations have their roots in the findings of ancient Greeks. One of such ‘traditional’ tasks of linguists dealing with syntax was to describe the organization of the parts of a sentence, however, with the development of this branch of linguistics, and especially in contemporary inquiries the scope of interest has widened.
Yet, before the most recent theories are presented the very concept of a ‘sentence’ needs clarification. As a general rule, a sentence is described as a full formulation of an idea, nevertheless, there are numerous examples of thoughts expressed in a language, and yet in not fully developed sentences, like: ‘Go!’, or ‘Coffee?’. That is why two different approaches to defining sentences have emerged: notional which characterizes a sentence as an expression of a single idea, and formal focusing on the manners of constructing sentences, and patterns within them.
As a consequence of the differences in the approaches a division of sentences on the basis of their complexity was created. And thus sentences are either major, or minor. Major sentences are those which can be modified or analyzed further into patterns of elements. They are further subdivided into simple sentences, which consist of only one clause, or multiple sentences consisting of two or more clauses. On the other hand, minor sentences cannot be broken down into patterns of elements, because they use ‘abnormal’ patterns, in that they do not follow the rules of grammar. Some types of minor sentences include: abbreviated forms, such as ‘wish you were here’; proverbs: ‘easy come, easy go’; emotional noises: ‘ouch!’, ‘ugh!’; formulae: ‘how do you do?’.
Seeing all those difficulties an American linguist Noam Chomsky came up with an idea of generative grammar, which was supposed to look at the grammar of language from the mathematical point of view, constructing a limited number of rules describing all the possible patterns of forming correct sentences. Moreover, what Chomsky showed was the difference between the deep and surface structure of a sentence. What he called the surface structure of a sentence was its grammatical form, and the deep structure was understood as the meaning of sentence. For example the two sentences: I know Mary. and Mary knows me. differ in their surface structure, but not in their deep structure. Still, it is the deep structure that might cause the biggest problems. Certain sentences, although easily understood, can be ambiguous because of their structure, like for instance He hit a guy with a car. This sentence can mean that he was driving a car and hit someone, or that he hit somebody who had a car.
All of the above mentioned issues are in the focus of attention of linguists dealing with syntax who in order to analyze various types of sentences had to introduce specific methods and symbols. Lets start with the symbols, and abbreviations.
Name : Awadif Nabilah
Class : 2011 A
Syntax in linguistics is the study of how abstract units of language such as words acceptably combine into larger grammatical structures such as phrases and sentences. Syntacticians attempt to define rules which describe the formation such structures and disallow others, either in the grammar of a specific language, or in all languages. Since the publication of Noam Chomsky's book*Syntactic Structures in 1957, much research on syntax in the modern discipline of linguistics has been within the frameworks of generative linguistics theories such as minimalist syntax, or has emerged in competition to those theories.
NAME : MELLY NUR INDAH
CLASS : 2011A
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of the structure of a sentence and ordering of its elements. The word syntax itself derives from Greek words meaning ‘together’ or ‘arrangement’, but also the modern syntactic tradition and investigations have their roots in the findings of ancient Greeks. One of such ‘traditional’ tasks of linguists dealing with syntax was to describe the organization of the parts of a sentence, however, with the development of this branch of linguistics, and especially in contemporary inquiries the scope of interest has widened.
Yet, before the most recent theories are presented the very concept of a ‘sentence’ needs clarification. As a general rule, a sentence is described as a full formulation of an idea, nevertheless, there are numerous examples of thoughts expressed in a language, and yet in not fully developed sentences, like: ‘Go!’, or ‘Coffee?’. That is why two different approaches to defining sentences have emerged: notional which characterizes a sentence as an expression of a single idea, and formal focusing on the manners of constructing sentences, and patterns within them.
As a consequence of the differences in the approaches a division of sentences on the basis of their complexity was created. And thus sentences are either major, or minor. Major sentences are those which can be modified or analyzed further into patterns of elements. They are further subdivided into simple sentences, which consist of only one clause, or multiple sentences consisting of two or more clauses. On the other hand, minor sentences cannot be broken down into patterns of elements, because they use ‘abnormal’ patterns, in that they do not follow the rules of grammar. Some types of minor sentences include: abbreviated forms, such as ‘wish you were here’; proverbs: ‘easy come, easy go’; emotional noises: ‘ouch!’, ‘ugh!’; formulae: ‘how do you do?’.
Seeing all those difficulties an American linguist Noam Chomsky came up with an idea of generative grammar, which was supposed to look at the grammar of language from the mathematical point of view, constructing a limited number of rules describing all the possible patterns of forming correct sentences. Moreover, what Chomsky showed was the difference between the deep and surface structure of a sentence. What he called the surface structure of a sentence was its grammatical form, and the deep structure was understood as the meaning of sentence. For example the two sentences: I know Mary. and Mary knows me. differ in their surface structure, but not in their deep structure. Still, it is the deep structure that might cause the biggest problems. Certain sentences, although easily understood, can be ambiguous because of their structure, like for instance He hit a guy with a car. This sentence can mean that he was driving a car and hit someone, or that he hit somebody who had a car.
All of the above mentioned issues are in the focus of attention of linguists dealing with syntax who in order to analyze various types of sentences had to introduce specific methods and symbols. Lets start with the symbols, and abbreviations.
Name : AFIFAH
Class : 2011-B
Definition
Syntax looks at the rules of a language, particularly how the various parts of sentences go together. While similar to morphology, which looks at how the smallest meaningful linguistic units, called morphemes, are formed into complete words, syntax examines how fully formed words fit together to create complete and understandable sentences. Understanding a language's syntax is important for understanding what makes a sentence grammatically correct.
The Purpose of Syntax
Linguists and grammarians who study syntax are not necessarily prescriptivist, which means they do not attempt to tell people how to "correctly" form a sentence. Rather, they are descriptivist, in that they look at how people actually speak and then create rules that describe what a language community considers grammatical or non-grammatical. Syntax deals with a number of elements, all of which help to facilitate being understood through language. Without rules, there would be no foundation from which to discern meaning from a bunch of words strung together; whereas these rules allow for a virtually infinite number of sentences.
Discussion
The syntax of a language can be divided into two parts:
• Syntactic classes such as noun, verb, and adjective
• Syntactic functions, such as subject and object
Parts of Speech
Another aspect of syntax covers the various parts of speech that a language uses and separates the words of the language into these groups. Each part of speech in turn has various rules that may be applied to it, and other rules that dictate when it cannot be used. English, for example, makes use of nouns, verbs, adjectives, and other word types, while different languages may not have a separate class for adjectives or make use of classes not found in English. Thai, for example, doesn't distinguish between adjectives and adverbs, while Japanese has several different types of words that act as adjectives.
Run-Ons and Incomplete Sentences
Through an understanding of proper syntax, speakers and writers know how sentences should be broken up. When two or more sentences are improperly combined into a single sentence, it usually creates a "run-on." Similarly, a sentence that does not contain a full syntactic idea, such as "Swam quickly to the bank," is considered incomplete. Understanding linguistic rules allows speakers and writers to effectively communicate ideas to others.
name : istita batul laily
class : 2011b
The word syntax derives from the Greek word syntaxis, which means arrangement. Morphology deals with word formation out of morphemes; syntax deals with phrase and sentence formation out of words. Syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing phrases and sentences in a language. Syntax focuses on the word order of a language and the relationships between words. Syntax is the grammatical arrangements of words in sentences. inverted syntax. Syntax could also be seen as the study of these rules.
In linguistics, the study of the rules that govern the ways in which words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is one of the major components of grammar.
A syntax is just a grammatical order or arrangement of words in a sentence. It's a study of rules for constructing acceptable sentences. In computer language if you receive a syntax error, it means you didn't enter a command in it's correct.
In linguistics, the study of the rules that govern the ways in which words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is one of the major components of grammar
"Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages. Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its goal the construction of a grammar that can be viewed as a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under analysis."
The Role of Syntax in Language
This section is an introduction to syntax in language as far as it is relevant to the content of this book. It is not meant to be a rigorous discussion of linguistics. What I am describing is a simple orthodox view of the grammar of language. Some more complex models are discussed by linguists but these are beyond the scope of this description. This section is included for those readers who would like a brief overview without having to refer separately to a linguistics textbook. Those who would like to read more about the various linguistic theories should refer to the bibliography for references to linguistics books and to sites on the web covering linguistic topics
Name : Awadif Nabilah
Class : 2011.A
Syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing phrases and sentences in a language. Syntax focuses on the word order of a language and the relationships between words.
Syntax is a subfield of grammar.
The Purpose of Syntax
Linguists and grammarians who study syntax are not necessarily prescriptivist, which means they do not attempt to tell people how to "correctly" form a sentence. Rather, they are descriptivist, in that they look at how people actually speak and then create rules that describe what a language community considers grammatical or non-grammatical. Syntax deals with a number of elements, all of which help to facilitate being understood through language. Without rules, there would be no foundation from which to discern meaning from a bunch of words strung together; whereas these rules allow for a virtually infinite number of sentences.
Word Order in Language Construction
Perhaps the most important aspect of syntax is how the various parts of speech connect together. Every language has rules that dictate where certain types of words can be used in a sentence, and how to interpret the resulting sentence. A new language learner has to understand how this word order is structured, which can be difficult for someone used to a different language.
In English, the basic order is "Subject-Verb-Object;" this means that in a simple sentence, the first noun phrase is the subject, and the subsequent predicate includes the verb phrase and may contain an object. This allows English speakers to understand that in the sentence "The boy kicked the ball," the "boy" is the subject, and therefore the one doing the kicking, whereas the "ball" is the object being kicked. If someone wrote the sentence, "The ball kicked the boy," the meaning would be reversed somewhat strangely, and "Kicked the ball the boy," would immediately be recognized as a violation of basic syntactical order and read as nonsense.
Not all languages follow this same order, however. In Spanish, for example, the order of the words is more flexible in most cases, and serves to shift the emphasis of a sentence rather than its meaning. Similarly, adjectives in English usually precede the word they describe, while they come after the described word in languages such as French.
Parts of Speech
Another aspect of syntax covers the various parts of speech that a language uses and separates the words of the language into these groups. Each part of speech in turn has various rules that may be applied to it, and other rules that dictate when it cannot be used. English, for example, makes use of nouns, verbs, adjectives, and other word types, while different languages may not have a separate class for adjectives or make use of classes not found in English. Thai, for example, doesn't distinguish between adjectives and adverbs, while Japanese has several different types of words that act as adjectives.
Name : feni mayasari
class : 2011 B
Basically, syntax is the rules by which signs are combined to make statements. If you consider the words of a language to be its signs, then its syntax is the rules which put signs together to make statements, ask questions, and produce other utterances.Syntax incorporates the grammar of phrases, clauses, and sentences. Producing and uttering sentences is an important part of how we make sense of our world. We articulate the meaning of our experience in words; in the process of articulate, we make (or discover) the meaning of the experience. This process is similar to the ways in which we intrepret literature. The syntax the exact structure of what we write is an essential part of its meaning. Change the structure and you have changed the meaning, at least slightly
NAME : FARIZ AFANDI
CLASS: 2011-C
SYNTAX
The term syntax can also be used to refer to these rules themselves, the syntax of a language. Modern research in syntax attempts to describe languages in terms of such rules, and, for many practitioners, to find general rules that apply to all languages.
Syntax term :
NOUN
Noun in Indonesian language that have mean “kata benda”.
Nouns often need a word called an article or determiner (like or that). These words usually do not go with other kinds of words like verbs or adverbs. (For example, people do not say "I will the go to library" because go is a verb not noun).
Example :
The pay of the job is high.
Go there on Monday.
Name : Rikma Latri
Class : C - 2011 (02)
Syntax is one of the major components of grammar. The word syntax derives from the Greek word syntaxis, which means arrangement. Just like morphology, syntax is not concerned with what a sentence means, in the sense of what it tells us about the world, but with the internal structure of units and their relations to one another. In other words, syntax asks which sentences are in accord with the grammatical rules imposed by a particular language and which aren’t. When talking about sentences as units in grammar, it is important to recognize that we idealize their status to some extent. Spoken language often consists of incomplete utterances and seemingly disjointed pieces, but this does not make it ‘less grammatical’. In polysynthetic languages the single word serve as a complete sentence much more frequently. In such languages, morphology rather than syntax usually expresses the distinction between subject and predicate.
Linguists and grammarians who study syntax are not necessarily prescriptivist, which means they do not attempt to tell people how to "correctly" form a sentence. Rather, they are descriptivist, in that they look at how people actually speak and then create rules that describe what a language community considers grammatical or non-grammatical. Syntax deals with a number of elements, all of which help to facilitate being understood through language. Without rules, there would be no foundation from which to discern meaning from a bunch of words strung together; whereas these rules allow for a virtually infinite number of sentences .
NAME; MAULID ADITYA
CLASS; 2011 C
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of the structure of a sentence and ordering of its elements. The word syntax itself derives from Greek words meaning ‘together’ or ‘arrangement’, but also the modern syntactic tradition and investigations have their roots in the findings of ancient Greeks. One of such ‘traditional’ tasks of linguists dealing with syntax was to describe the organization of the parts of a sentence, however, with the development of this branch of linguistics, and especially in contemporary inquiries the scope of interest has widened.
Yet, before the most recent theories are presented the very concept of a ‘sentence’ needs clarification. As a general rule, a sentence is described as a full formulation of an idea, nevertheless, there are numerous examples of thoughts expressed in a language, and yet in not fully developed sentences, like: ‘Go!’, or ‘Coffee?’. That is why two different approaches to defining sentences have emerged: notional which characterizes a sentence as an expression of a single idea, and formal focusing on the manners of constructing sentences, and patterns within them.
As a consequence of the differences in the approaches a division of sentences on the basis of their complexity was created. And thus sentences are either major, or minor. Major sentences are those which can be modified or analyzed further into patterns of elements. They are further subdivided into simple sentences, which consist of only one clause, or multiple sentences consisting of two or more clauses. On the other hand, minor sentences cannot be broken down into patterns of elements, because they use ‘abnormal’ patterns, in that they do not follow the rules of grammar. Some types of minor sentences include: abbreviated forms, such as ‘wish you were here’; proverbs: ‘easy come, easy go’; emotional noises: ‘ouch!’, ‘ugh!’; formulae: ‘how do you do?’.
Seeing all those difficulties an American linguist Noam Chomsky came up with an idea of generative grammar, which was supposed to look at the grammar of language from the mathematical point of view, constructing a limited number of rules describing all the possible patterns of forming correct sentences. Moreover, what Chomsky showed was the difference between the deep and surface structure of a sentence. What he called the surface structure of a sentence was its grammatical form, and the deep structure was understood as the meaning of sentence. For example the two sentences: I know Mary. and Mary knows me. differ in their surface structure, but not in their deep structure. Still, it is the deep structure that might cause the biggest problems. Certain sentences, although easily understood, can be ambiguous because of their structure, like for instance He hit a guy with a car. This sentence can mean that he was driving a car and hit someone, or that he hit somebody who had a car.
All of the above mentioned issues are in the focus of attention of linguists dealing with syntax who in order to analyze various types of sentences had to introduce specific methods and symbols. Lets start with the symbols, and abbreviations:
Adj adjective
Adv adverb
Art article
N noun
NP noun phrase
PN proper noun
PP prepositional phrase
Prep preposition
Pro pronoun
S sentence
V verb
VP verb phrase
Name:fitriyah tahta alfina
Class:2011/B
Definition of SYNTAX
(1) In linguistics , the study of the rules that govern the ways in which words combine to form phrases , clauses , and sentences . Syntax is one of the major components of grammar .
(2) The arrangement of words in a sentence. Adjective: syntactic .
The Purpose of Syntax
Linguists and grammarians who study syntax are not necessarily prescriptivist, which means they do not attempt to tell people how to "correctly" form a sentence. Rather, they are descriptivist, in that they look at how people actually speak and then create rules that describe what a language community considers grammatical or non-grammatical. Syntax deals with a number of elements, all of which help to facilitate being understood through language. Without rules, there would be no foundation from which to discern meaning from a bunch of words strung together; whereas these rules allow for a virtually infinite number of sentences.
Examples of SYNTAX
1.Origin of SYNTAX“ I saw that she a cookie ate ” is an example of incorrectsyntax .
2.Everyone has good days and bad days. Her syntax is sometimes a world unto itself. But George HW Bush occasionally sounded as though English were more foe than friend, and he was an astute president who managed complexity with skill and balance.
Origin of SYNTAX
Middle French or Late Latin; Middle French sintaxe, from Late Latin syntaxis, from Greek, from syntassein to arrange together, from syn- + tassein to arrange
First Known Use: 1574
NAME :YUNAN DWI SARASANTI
CLASS : 2011 - B
NO : 08
Syntax is the study of language structure and phrasal hierarchies, depicted in parse tree format. It is concerned with the relationship between units at the level of words or morphology. Syntax seeks to delineate exactly all and only those sentences which make up a given language, using native speaker intuition. Syntax seeks to describe formally exactly how structural relations between elements (lexical items/words and operators) in a sentence contribute to its interpretation. Syntax uses principles of formal logic and Set Theory to formalize and represent accurately the hierarchical relationship between elements in a sentence. Abstract syntax trees are often used to illustrate the hierarchical structures that are posited. Thus, in active declarative sentences in English the subject is followed by the main verb which in turn is followed by the object (SVO). This order of elements is crucial to its correct interpretation and it is exactly this which syntacticians try to capture. They argue that there must be a formal computational component contained within the language faculty of normal speakers of a language and seek to describe it.
Syntax is a form of grammar. It is concerned primarily with word order in a sentence and with the agreement of words when they are used together. So it is, in a sense, acting as a kind of ‘police officer’ for the way in which sentences are constructed.
English is a language that has a structure known as SVO. That is subject, verb and object. The cat (subject) washes (verb) its paw (object). This is the correct word order and also there is agreement between the words.
If there were no agreement within the sentence, it could read, “The cat washes their paw”. This does not make sense. The cat may have four paws, but it is only washing one paw. For there to be agreement, the possessive ‘it’ has to be correct. Thus “The cats (plural) wash their (plural) paws (plural)”. This is the correct use of the plural possessive (their).
At first, syntax can seem daunting and it is always difficult initially to understand what a ‘subject’, ‘verb’ or ‘object’ actually is. It can also be difficult to understand whether agreement between the ‘subject’, ‘verb’ or ‘object’ is right or wrong. There are lots of tools such as grammar checkers, programmes or worksheets to help you get to grips with syntax and to make sure that you have the right word order and that within the sentence there is always agreement between the words, tenses and so on.
It is true that syntax can take some time to master, but, once you understand its principles and can apply it without too much effort, then it really is worth the effort, since it will greatly improve your written English.
NAME: ZAINUDIN ( 2011/ B )
"Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages. Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its goal the construction of a grammar that can be viewed as a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under analysis."(Noam Chomsky, 2002:11)
Chomsky mengatakan bahwa syntax adalah mata pelajaran/kuliah tentang prinsip-prinsip dan proses-proses dimana kalimat disusun dalam bahasa tertentu. Penelitian tentang syntax pada bahasa tertentu memiliki tujuannya tersendiri dimana susunan grammar dapat dilihat sebagai alat untuk menghasilkan sebuah kalimat dalam sebuah bahasa. Pakar lain yang menjelaskan definisi syntax adalah Matthew, dikutip oleh Van Vallin dan LaPolla (1997:1), ia mengatakan:
‘The term ‘syntax’ is from the Ancient Greek syntaxis, a verbal noun which literally means “arrangement” or “setting out together”. Traditionally, it refers to the branch of grammar dealing with the ways in which words, with or without appropriate inflections, are arranged to show connections of meaning within the sentence.’
Matthew menjelaskan bahwa istilah syntax diambil dari noun verbal bahasa Yunani kuno yang secara literlek berarti “susunan”. Umumnya, syntax mengacu pada bidang grammar yang menerangkan tentang cara-cara bagaimana kata-kata, dengan ataupun tanpa infleksi, disusun untuk menunjukkan hubungan makna dalam kalimat
Syntax is from a Greek word meaning order or arrangement.
Syntax deals with the relation of words to each other as component parts of a sentence, and with their proper arrangement to express clearly the intended meaning.
Ground covered by syntax.
Following the Latin method, writers on English grammar usually divide syntax into the two general heads,- agreement and government.
Agreement is concerned with the following relations of words: words in apposition, verb and subject, pronoun and antecedent, adjective and noun.
Government has to do with verbs and prepositions, both of which are said to govern words by having them in the objective case.
Considering the scarcity of inflections in English, it is clear that if we merely follow the Latin treatment, the department of syntax will be a small affair. But there is a good deal else to watch in addition to the few forms; for there is an important and marked difference between Latin and English syntax. It is this:-
Latin syntax depends upon fixed rules governing the use of inflected forms: hence the position of words in a sentence is of little grammatical importance.
English syntax follows the Latin to a limited extent; but its leading characteristic is, that English syntax is founded upon the meaning and the logical connection of words rather than upon their form: consequently it is quite as necessary to place words properly, and to think clearly of the meaning of words, as to study inflected forms.
For example, the sentence, "The savage here the settler slew," is ambiguous. Savage may be the subject, following the regular order of subject; or settler may be the subject, the order being inverted. In Latin, distinct forms would be used, and it would not matter which one stood first.
There is, then, a double reason for not omitting syntax as a department of grammar,-
First, To study the rules regarding the use of inflected forms, some of which conform to classical grammar, while some are idiomatic (peculiar to our own language).
Second, To find out the logical methods which control us in the arrangement of words; and particularly when the grammatical and the logical conception of a sentence do not agree, or when they exist side by side in good usage.
As an illustration of the last remark, take the sentence, "Besides these famous books of Scott's and Johnson's, there is a copious 'Life' by Sheridan." In this there is a possessive form, and added to it the preposition of, also expressing a possessive relation. This is not logical; it is not consistent with the general rules of grammar: but none the less it is good English.
Also in the sentence, "None remained but he," grammatical rules would require him instead of he after the preposition; yet the expression is sustained by good authority.
NAME: ANUGRAH GERYWANSYAH ( 2011/ B )
In some cases, authorities-that is, standard writers-differ as to which of two constructions should be used, or the same writer will use both indifferently. Instances will be found in treating of the pronoun or noun with a gerund, pronoun and antecedent, sometimes verb and subject, etc.
When usage varies as to a given construction, both forms will be given in the following pages.
NAME: ANUGRAH GERYWANSYAH ( 2011/B)
Syntax is from a Greek word meaning order or arrangement.
Syntax deals with the relation of words to each other as component parts of a sentence, and with their proper arrangement to express clearly the intended meaning.
Ground covered by syntax.
Following the Latin method, writers on English grammar usually divide syntax into the two general heads,- agreement and government.
Agreement is concerned with the following relations of words: words in apposition, verb and subject, pronoun and antecedent, adjective and noun.
Government has to do with verbs and prepositions, both of which are said to govern words by having them in the objective case.
Considering the scarcity of inflections in English, it is clear that if we merely follow the Latin treatment, the department of syntax will be a small affair. But there is a good deal else to watch in addition to the few forms; for there is an important and marked difference between Latin and English syntax. It is this:-
Latin syntax depends upon fixed rules governing the use of inflected forms: hence the position of words in a sentence is of little grammatical importance.
English syntax follows the Latin to a limited extent; but its leading characteristic is, that English syntax is founded upon the meaning and the logical connection of words rather than upon their form: consequently it is quite as necessary to place words properly, and to think clearly of the meaning of words, as to study inflected forms.
For example, the sentence, "The savage here the settler slew," is ambiguous. Savage may be the subject, following the regular order of subject; or settler may be the subject, the order being inverted. In Latin, distinct forms would be used, and it would not matter which one stood first.
There is, then, a double reason for not omitting syntax as a department of grammar,-
First, To study the rules regarding the use of inflected forms, some of which conform to classical grammar, while some are idiomatic (peculiar to our own language).
Second, To find out the logical methods which control us in the arrangement of words; and particularly when the grammatical and the logical conception of a sentence do not agree, or when they exist side by side in good usage.
As an illustration of the last remark, take the sentence, "Besides these famous books of Scott's and Johnson's, there is a copious 'Life' by Sheridan." In this there is a possessive form, and added to it the preposition of, also expressing a possessive relation. This is not logical; it is not consistent with the general rules of grammar: but none the less it is good English.
Also in the sentence, "None remained but he," grammatical rules would require him instead of he after the preposition; yet the expression is sustained by good authority.
In some cases, authorities-that is, standard writers-differ as to which of two constructions should be used, or the same writer will use both indifferently. Instances will be found in treating of the pronoun or noun with a gerund, pronoun and antecedent, sometimes verb and subject, etc.
When usage varies as to a given construction, both forms will be given in the following pages.
NAME: SISKA
CLASS: 2011 , B
Syntax is from a Greek word meaning order or arrangement.
Syntax deals with the relation of words to each other as component parts of a sentence, and with their proper arrangement to express clearly the intended meaning.
Ground covered by syntax.
Following the Latin method, writers on English grammar usually divide syntax into the two general heads,- agreement and government.
Agreement is concerned with the following relations of words: words in apposition, verb and subject, pronoun and antecedent, adjective and noun.
Government has to do with verbs and prepositions, both of which are said to govern words by having them in the objective case.
Considering the scarcity of inflections in English, it is clear that if we merely follow the Latin treatment, the department of syntax will be a small affair. But there is a good deal else to watch in addition to the few forms; for there is an important and marked difference between Latin and English syntax. It is this:-
Latin syntax depends upon fixed rules governing the use of inflected forms: hence the position of words in a sentence is of little grammatical importance.
English syntax follows the Latin to a limited extent; but its leading characteristic is, that English syntax is founded upon the meaning and the logical connection of words rather than upon their form: consequently it is quite as necessary to place words properly, and to think clearly of the meaning of words, as to study inflected forms.
For example, the sentence, "The savage here the settler slew," is ambiguous. Savage may be the subject, following the regular order of subject; or settler may be the subject, the order being inverted. In Latin, distinct forms would be used, and it would not matter which one stood first.
There is, then, a double reason for not omitting syntax as a department of grammar,-
First, To study the rules regarding the use of inflected forms, some of which conform to classical grammar, while some are idiomatic (peculiar to our own language).
Second, To find out the logical methods which control us in the arrangement of words; and particularly when the grammatical and the logical conception of a sentence do not agree, or when they exist side by side in good usage.
As an illustration of the last remark, take the sentence, "Besides these famous books of Scott's and Johnson's, there is a copious 'Life' by Sheridan." In this there is a possessive form, and added to it the preposition of, also expressing a possessive relation. This is not logical; it is not consistent with the general rules of grammar: but none the less it is good English.
Also in the sentence, "None remained but he," grammatical rules would require him instead of he after the preposition; yet the expression is sustained by good authority.
In some cases, authorities-that is, standard writers-differ as to which of two constructions should be used, or the same writer will use both indifferently. Instances will be found in treating of the pronoun or noun with a gerund, pronoun and antecedent, sometimes verb and subject, etc.
When usage varies as to a given construction, both forms will be given in the following pages.
name :Uswatun khasanah
class : 2011A move to 2011B
Definition of Syntax
"Syntax is a word which comes from the Greek. Syntax is the study of the part of the human linguistic system that determines how sentences are put together out of words. Syntactic rules in a grammar account for the grammaticality of sentences, and the ordering of words and morphemes. Syntax involves our knowledge of structural ambiguilt your knowledge that sentences may be paraphrases of each other our knowledge of the grammatical function of each part of a sentence, that is, of the grammatical relations.It is also concerned with speakers' ability to produce and understand an infinite set of possible sentences.The sentence is regarded the highest-ranking unit of grammar, and therefore that the purpose of grammatical description is to define, making use of whatever descriptive apparatus that may be necessary (rules, categories, etc).
Syntactic Rules
Three universal basic syntactic rules:Linear order of constituentsCategorization of constituents Grouping of constituents into constituent structures.
Sentence Types
Sentences in any language are constructed from a rather small set of basic structural patterns
and through certain processes involving the expansion or transformation of these basic patterns.When we consider sentence types from another perspective, it can be shown that each
of the longer sentences of a language (and these are in the majorityusually) is structured in the same way as one of arelatively small number of short sentences which areimpossible to reduce to a short form.These short sentences have the basic sentence types. There are different ways of dealing with sentence types.
Sentence Types
1. Simple Sentence : A simple sentence contains only one clause with a single verb group.
Example:
• Dora yelled.
• Christ resembled his father.
• Jack and Jill love each other.
• A runner from Ethiopia won the New York marathon this year.
• The students should have been working on the term paper.
2. Coordinate Sentence :A coordinate sentence has two clausesconjoined into one by a coordinating conjunction. (and, but, or). They hold equal status.
Example:
• Christ resembled his father, but hisbrother resembled his mother.
• Mark loves Dora, and she feels it
3. Complex Sentence : A complex sentence is composed of twoclauses with one holding main status(matrix clause) and the other incorporated or embedded into it(embedded clause), which is often introduced by a subordinator (who, that,though, when, because, as, since,although)
Example :
• Mark denied that Dora yelled.
• The murderer escaped when the policearrived at the scene
Syntactic Function
The traditional approach to syntactic function identifies constituents of the sentence, states the part of speech each word belongs to, describes theinflexion involved, and explains the relationship each word related to the others.According to its relation to other constituents, a constituent may serve certain syntactic function ina clause
NAME : ARKIA PRAMUDYA ANDITA
CLASS : 2011 - B
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of the structure of a sentence and ordering of its elements. The word syntax itself derives from Greek words meaning ‘together’ or ‘arrangement’, but also the modern syntactic tradition and investigations have their roots in the findings of ancient Greeks. One of such ‘traditional’ tasks of linguists dealing with syntax was to describe the organization of the parts of a sentence, however, with the development of this branch of linguistics, and especially in contemporary inquiries the scope of interest has widened.
Yet, before the most recent theories are presented the very concept of a ‘sentence’ needs clarification. As a general rule, a sentence is described as a full formulation of an idea, nevertheless, there are numerous examples of thoughts expressed in a language, and yet in not fully developed sentences, like: ‘Go!’, or ‘Coffee?’. That is why two different approaches to defining sentences have emerged: notional which characterizes a sentence as an expression of a single idea, and formal focusing on the manners of constructing sentences, and patterns within them.
As a consequence of the differences in the approaches a division of sentences on the basis of their complexity was created. And thus sentences are either major, or minor. Major sentences are those which can be modified or analyzed further into patterns of elements. They are further subdivided into simple sentences, which consist of only one clause, or multiple sentences consisting of two or more clauses. On the other hand, minor sentences cannot be broken down into patterns of elements, because they use ‘abnormal’ patterns, in that they do not follow the rules of grammar. Some types of minor sentences include: abbreviated forms, such as ‘wish you were here’; proverbs: ‘easy come, easy go’; emotional noises: ‘ouch!’, ‘ugh!’; formulae: ‘how do you do?’.
Seeing all those difficulties an American linguist Noam Chomsky came up with an idea of generative grammar, which was supposed to look at the grammar of language from the mathematical point of view, constructing a limited number of rules describing all the possible patterns of forming correct sentences. Moreover, what Chomsky showed was the difference between the deep and surface structure of a sentence. What he called the surface structure of a sentence was its grammatical form, and the deep structure was understood as the meaning of sentence. For example the two sentences: I know Mary. and Mary knows me. differ in their surface structure, but not in their deep structure. Still, it is the deep structure that might cause the biggest problems. Certain sentences, although easily understood, can be ambiguous because of their structure, like for instance He hit a guy with a car. This sentence can mean that he was driving a car and hit someone, or that he hit somebody who had a car.
All of the above mentioned issues are in the focus of attention of linguists dealing with syntax who in order to analyze various types of sentences had to introduce specific methods and symbols.
name: devi elifah
class: 2011/B
Definition
Syntax looks at the rules of a language, particularly how the various parts of sentences go together. While similar to morphology, which looks at how the smallest meaningful linguistic units, called morphemes, are formed into complete words, syntax examines how fully formed words fit together to create complete and understandable sentences. Understanding a language's syntax is important for understanding what makes a sentence grammatically correct.
The Purpose of Syntax
Linguists and grammarians who study syntax are not necessarily prescriptivist, which means they do not attempt to tell people how to "correctly" form a sentence. Rather, they are descriptivist, in that they look at how people actually speak and then create rules that describe what a language community considers grammatical or non-grammatical. Syntax deals with a number of elements, all of which help to facilitate being understood through language. Without rules, there would be no foundation from which to discern meaning from a bunch of words strung together; whereas these rules allow for a virtually infinite number of sentences.
Discussion
The syntax of a language can be divided into two parts:
• Syntactic classes such as noun, verb, and adjective
• Syntactic functions, such as subject and object
Parts of Speech
Another aspect of syntax covers the various parts of speech that a language uses and separates the words of the language into these groups. Each part of speech in turn has various rules that may be applied to it, and other rules that dictate when it cannot be used. English, for example, makes use of nouns, verbs, adjectives, and other word types, while different languages may not have a separate class for adjectives or make use of classes not found in English. Thai, for example, doesn't distinguish between adjectives and adverbs, while Japanese has several different types of words that act as adjectives.
Run-Ons and Incomplete Sentences
Through an understanding of proper syntax, speakers and writers know how sentences should be broken up. When two or more sentences are improperly combined into a single sentence, it usually creates a "run-on." Similarly, a sentence that does not contain a full syntactic idea, such as "Swam quickly to the bank," is considered incomplete. Understanding linguistic rules allows speakers and writers to effectively communicate ideas to others.
Name : Girinda Eka Panggayo
Class: 2011/C/09
..Syntax:
. The study of how words are combined into sentences.
. Specifically, goal is to relate surface form (e.g., interface to phonological component) to semantics (e.g., interface to semantic component)
. Morphology, phonology, semantics farmed out (mainly), issue is word order and structure
. Representational device is tree structure
..And remember – syntactically, you create emphasis by:
. Position – Where you put something in the sentence
. Isolation – Setting it off by itself (dash, quotation marks, parenthesis, etc.)
. Repetition – The number of times something is repeated
. Proportion – The size of the idea and how much of the piece the idea takes up
..Similar deal with sentences:
.We're going to class. familiar
.My anteater is hula dancing. unfamiliar
.We're class going to. impossible
..Example of Syntactic Categories:
Lexical categories:
Noun (N) :moisture,policy
Verb (V) :melt,remain
Adjective (A) :good,intelligent
Adverb (Adv) :slowly,now
syntax is Arrangement of words in sentences, clauses, and phrases, and the study of the formation of sentences and the relationship of their component parts. In English, the main device for showing this relationship is word order;
for example, “The boy loves his dog” follows standard subject-verb-object word order, and switching the order of such a sentence would change the meaning or make the sentence meaningless. Word order is much more flexible in languages such as Latin, in which word endings indicate the case of a noun or adjective; such inflections make it unnecessary to rely on word order to indicate a word's function in the sentence.
NAME:JAMILATUL KHUSNIA
CLASS:2011.C
M. Daniyal Chakim
2011/A
syntax is not concerned with what a sentence means, in the sense of what it tells us about the world, but with the internal structure of units and their relations to one another. In other words, syntax asks which sentences are in accord with the grammatical rules imposed by a particular language and which aren’t.
When talking about sentences as units in grammar, it is important to recognize that we idealize their status to some extent. Spoken language often consists of incomplete utterances and seemingly disjointed pieces, but this does not make it ‘less grammatical’.
Two simple sentences demonstrate aptly what sort of relations are covered by syntax:
John likes pie
*John pie likes
The words used in both sentences are identical and common expressions in English. But clearly there is a problem with John pie likes. While in Persiansuch a sentence structure would be acceptable, it cannot be considered grammatically well-formed in English, because it does not conform with thecanonical word order of English (Subject – Verb – Object, or SVO). Clearly the words themselves would also be different in Persian, but what counts in the context of syntax is that what is grammatical in one language may well beungrammatical in another and that this dimension is detached from meaningas we frequently understand it.
A famous example sentence helps to exemplify this last aspect of language:
Colorless green ideas sleep furiously
The sentence may not ‘make sense’ in that ideas cannot be colorless, do not have the ability to sleep and are not able to do so furiously. But grammatically the sentence is perfectly acceptable, because every word is in a place where it can potentially be, something that is not the case with *John pie likes or *Furiously sleep ideas green colorless.
syn·tax
1.Linguistics .
a.the study of the rules for the formation of grammatical sentences in a language.
b.the study of the patterns of formation of sentences and phrases from words.
c.the rules or patterns so studied: English syntax.
d.a presentation of these: a syntax of English.
e.an instance of these: the syntax of a sentence.
2.Logic .
a.that branch of modern logic that studies the various kinds of signs that occur in a system and the possible arrangements of those signs, complete abstraction being made of the meaning of the signs.
b.the outcome of such a study when directed upon a specified language.
3.a system or orderly arrangement.
NAME:KHOLIFATUL WIDAD
CLASS:C
syntax is Arrangement of words in sentences, clauses, and phrases, and the study of the formation of sentences and the relationship of their component parts. In English, the main device for showing this relationship is word order;
for example, “The boy loves his dog” follows standard subject-verb-object word order, and switching the order of such a sentence would change the meaning or make the sentence meaningless. Word order is much more flexible in languages such as Latin, in which word endings indicate the case of a noun or adjective; such inflections make it unnecessary to rely on word order to indicate a word's function in the sentence.
NAME:SITI SALMA
CLASS:2011.C/27
Nama : Abdul Malik Ali
Class 2011 B (13)
Syntax
Syntax in linguistics can refer either to the study of the structural rules of language or to the bodies of rules themselves. It is part of the branch of linguistics dealing with the form and structure of natural languages, such as word order in spoken English or the sequencing of physical gestures in American Sign Language. The branch of linguistics that includes syntax also includes morphology, which is the study of the formation of words, and phonology, which is the study of a language’s system of sounds.
The word “syntax” is derived from the Greek syntaxis, which means “arrangement.” Syntax in linguistics deals with the ways that the elements of a sentence or phrase can be arranged and rearranged to express different meanings. For example, in spoken and written English, sentences are often constructed by following a subject with a verb and the direct object. The positions of the words convey the subject-object relationship. For example, a sentence such as "The dog bit the cat" conveys a meaning that is different from "The cat bit the dog," even though they contain exactly the same words.
The Representations of Syntax
In Linguistics, the syntax of sentences can be described by different methods, for instance, for the following sentence:
"The boy kicked the ball"
The syntax can be described, by the following methods:
1. A statement of the correct sequence of the parts of speech (or Syntactic Categories):
Subject is followed by verb is followed by object.
In the above example,
subject = "The boy" (article followed by noun)
verb = "kicked"
object = "The ball" (article followed by noun)
2. by a series of transformational rules
For example:
Sentence ~> Noun Phrase + Verb Phrase
Verb Phrase ~> Verb + Noun Phrase
Noun Phrase ~> Article + Noun
Where in the above example,
~> means “is transformed into”
Verb Phrase = “kicked the ball”
Noun Phrase = ”The boy” “the ball”
Aloysia Pradita R 2011/C no 17
syntax is one of the major components of grammar. The word syntax derives from the Greek word syntaxis, which means arrangement. Just like morphology, syntax is not concerned with what a sentence means, in the sense of what it tells us about the world, but with the internal structure of units and their relations to one another. In other words, syntax asks which sentences are in accord with the gram
matical rules imposed by a particular language and which aren’t. When talking about sentences as units in grammar, it is important to recognize that we idealize their status to some extent. Spoken language often consists of incomplete utterances and seemingly disjointed pieces, but this does not make it ‘less grammatical’. In polysynthetic languages the single word serve as a complete sentence much more frequently. In such languages, morphology rather than syntax usually expresses the distinction between subject and predicate.
Linguists and grammarians who study syntax are not necessarily prescriptivist, which means they do not attempt to tell people how to "correctly" form a sentence. Rather, they are descriptivist, in that they look at how people actually speak and then create rules that describe what a language community considers grammatical or non-grammatical. Syntax deals with a number of elements, all of which help to facilitate being understood through language. Without rules, there would be no foundation from which to discern meaning from a bunch of words strung together; whereas these rules allow for a virtually infinite number of sentences.
Name : Efva Yantika
Class: 2011 "A"
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of the structure of a sentence and ordering of its elements. The word syntax itself derives from Greek words meaning ‘together’ or ‘arrangement’, but also the modern syntactic tradition and investigations have their roots in the findings of ancient Greeks. One of such ‘traditional’ tasks of linguists dealing with syntax was to describe the organization of the parts of a sentence, however, with the development of this branch of linguistics, and especially in contemporary inquiries the scope of interest has widened.
Yet, before the most recent theories are presented the very concept of a ‘sentence’ needs clarification. As a general rule, a sentence is described as a full formulation of an idea, nevertheless, there are numerous examples of thoughts expressed in a language, and yet in not fully developed sentences, like: ‘Go!’, or ‘Coffee?’. That is why two different approaches to defining sentences have emerged: notional which characterizes a sentence as an expression of a single idea, and formal focusing on the manners of constructing sentences, and patterns within them.
As a consequence of the differences in the approaches a division of sentences on the basis of their complexity was created. And thus sentences are either major, or minor. Major sentences are those which can be modified or analyzed further into patterns of elements. They are further subdivided into simple sentences, which consist of only one clause, or multiple sentences consisting of two or more clauses. On the other hand, minor sentences cannot be broken down into patterns of elements, because they use ‘abnormal’ patterns, in that they do not follow the rules of grammar. Some types of minor sentences include: abbreviated forms, such as ‘wish you were here’; proverbs: ‘easy come, easy go’; emotional noises: ‘ouch!’, ‘ugh!’; formulae: ‘how do you do?’.
Seeing all those difficulties an American linguist Noam Chomsky came up with an idea of generative grammar, which was supposed to look at the grammar of language from the mathematical point of view, constructing a limited number of rules describing all the possible patterns of forming correct sentences. Moreover, what Chomsky showed was the difference between the deep and surface structure of a sentence. What he called the surface structure of a sentence was its grammatical form, and the deep structure was understood as the meaning of sentence. For example the two sentences: I know Mary. and Mary knows me. differ in their surface structure, but not in their deep structure. Still, it is the deep structure that might cause the biggest problems. Certain sentences, although easily understood, can be ambiguous because of their structure, like for instance He hit a guy with a car. This sentence can mean that he was driving a car and hit someone, or that he hit somebody who had a car.
Syntax in linguistics can refer either to the study of the structural rules of language or to the bodies of rules themselves. It is part of the branch of linguistics dealing with the form and structure of natural languages, such as word order in spoken English or the sequencing of physical gestures in American Sign Language. The branch of linguistics that includes syntax also includes morphology, which is the study of the formation of words, and phonology, which is the study of a language’s system of sounds.
Linguistics is the scientific discipline dedicated to the study of human languages, and it comprises three main subfields. The first focuses on the forms of languages, and it includes syntax, morphology and phonology. The second deals with meaning in languages and includes the studies of semantics and pragmatics. In the third branch of linguistics, researchers deal with languages in different contexts, including history, human evolution and neuroscience.
The word “syntax” is derived from the Greek syntaxis, which means “arrangement.” Syntax in linguistics deals with the ways that the elements of a sentence or phrase can be arranged and rearranged to express different meanings. For example, in spoken and written English, sentences are often constructed by following a subject with a verb and the direct object. The positions of the words convey the subject-object relationship. For example, a sentence such as "The dog bit the cat" conveys a meaning that is different from "The cat bit the dog," even though they contain exactly the same words.
Researchers and students of syntax in linguistics analyze languages by breaking down sentences and phrases into units known as “syntactic atoms.” A syntactic atom might be a single word, or it might be a phrase that communicates one meaning. In the previous example, the word "the" is not a syntactic atom, but "the cat" is. In the sentence "The dog bit the small black cat that lives in the neighbor’s barn," the entire phrase "the small black cat that lives in the neighbor’s barn" is a single syntactic atom.
In some languages, sentence structure isn’t used to convey the relationships between the words. Rather, the forms of the words themselves change to communicate those relationships, and word order within the sentence is irrelevant. For this reason, syntax in linguistics is closely related to morphology — the study of how words are formed and how those formations change within the structure of a language. What is communicated syntactically in English might be communicated morphologically in another language.
Syntax allows speakers to communicate complicated thoughts by arranging small, simple units in meaningful ways. In English, for example, a sentence can be a simple as a one-word interjection, or it can be a lengthy composition with multiple clauses strung together. Human language is unlimited, because even within the rules of syntax, humans can generate new sentences or phrases to express novel ideas or experiences.
mutoharoh
b 2011
NAME: NUR FATIMAH LAILA SARI
CLASS: ENGLISH A 2011{O6)
syntax definition
The sequence in which words are put together to form sentences. In English, the usual sequence is subject, verb, and object.
In Linguistics, the syntax of sentences can be described by different methods, for instance, for the following sentence:
"The boy kicked the ball"
A statement of the correct sequence of the parts of speech (or Syntactic Categories):
Subject is followed by verb is followed by object.
In the above example,
subject = "The boy" (article followed by noun)
verb = "kicked"
object = "The ball" (article followed by noun)
AND THEN Syntax is the grammar, structure, or order of the elements in a language statement. (Semantics is the meaning of these elements.) Syntax applies to computer languages as well as to natural languages. Usually, we think of syntax as "word order." However, syntax is also achieved in some languages such as Latin by inflectional case endings. In computer languages, syntax can be extremely rigid as in the case of most assembler languages or less rigid in languages that make use of "keyword" parameters that can be stated in any order.
Name : Dwi Indah Fitriyanti
Class: 2011 "A"
No : 12
"Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages. Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its goal the construction of a grammar that can be viewed as a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under analysis.
In Linguistics, the syntax of sentences can be described by different methods, for instance, for the following sentence:
"The boy kicked the ball"
The syntax can be described, by the following methods:
1. A statement of the correct sequence of the parts of speech (or Syntactic Categories):
Subject is followed by verb is followed by object.
In the above example,
subject = "The boy" (article followed by noun)
verb = "kicked"
object = "The ball" (article followed by noun)
2. by a series of transformational rules
For example:
Where in the above example,
→ means “is transformed into”
Verb Phrase = “kicked the ball”
Noun Phrase = “The boy” “the ball”
Parts of speech
Words and phrases can be grouped according to their sentence building functions. Syntactic classes of words are traditionally called parts of speech. English has the following parts of speech: verb, noun, adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition, verbal particle (the off in turn off the light), article.
Note the following test to determine what is a preposition and what is a verbal particle in English:
a). The mouse ran up the clock--Up the clock he ran. (Prepositional phrases can be fronted).
b.) The man ran up a big bill.--*Up the big bill he ran. (Verbal particles cannot.) Also: The mouse ran up it (pronoun is object of the prep and can follow the preposition) but not *The mouse ran it up. But, The man ran it up (pronoun is object of the verb and follows the verb) not *The man ran up it.
Not all languages have the same parts of speech. Many languages have postpositions rather than prepositions, like Georgian skolashi, to school; skoladan, from school. Serbo-Croatian, Slovak and many other languages have clitics (clitics are affixes attached to phrases instead of single words). Dal som knigu prijatel'ovi/ Knigu som dal prijatel'ovi/ Prijatel'ovi som dal knigu. I gave it to my friend. Spanish uses the object marking clitics le and lo after verbs: Dice mi lo.
A common assertion is that all languages have at least nouns and verbs. It is true that all languages have some means of conveying information as a concept or as an event, but what a noun or verb is differs from language to language. In the Salishan languages of the Puget Sound, a single word can be translated into English as village and a village exist or there is a village; in other words, morphemes denoting stationary concepts are often bound roots that require verbal affixes to stand as words. So parts of speech--even nouns and verbs-- turn out to be at best fuzzy categories across languages, not identical or even present in every language. Some people thing of parts of speech or grammatical categories as similar to protons, electrons and neutrons in how they contribute to the structure of languages, but such is not the case. The form/meaning connections differ from language to language. There are universal tendencies, but these do not seem to be absolute universal properties.
Parts of speech are based on syntactic function, not concrete, extra-linguistic meaning. Notice that words is different syntactic classes can have the same concrete meaning and differ only in their ability to combine with other words: The sky darkens, the darkening of the sky, a dark sky, the darkness of the sky.
syntax is Arrangement of words in sentences, clauses, and phrases, and the study of the formation of sentences and the relationship of their component parts. In English, the main device for showing this relationship is word order; for example, “The boy loves his dog” follows standard subject-verb-object word order, and switching the order of such a sentence would change the meaning or make the sentence meaningless. Word order is much more flexible in languages such as Latin, in which word endings indicate the case of a noun or adjective; such inflections make it unnecessary to rely on word order to indicate a word's function in the sentence.
ANUGERAH GERIWANSYAH
2011B
Nur Alfina
2011/A
syntax is not concerned with what a sentence means, in the sense of what it tells us about the world, but with the internal structure of units and their relations to one another. In other words, syntax asks which sentences are in accord with the grammatical rules imposed by a particular language and which aren’t.
When talking about sentences as units in grammar, it is important to recognize that we idealize their status to some extent. Spoken language often consists of incomplete utterances and seemingly disjointed pieces, but this does not make it ‘less grammatical’.
Two simple sentences demonstrate aptly what sort of relations are covered by syntax:
John likes pie
*John pie likes
The words used in both sentences are identical and common expressions in English. But clearly there is a problem with John pie likes. While in Persiansuch a sentence structure would be acceptable, it cannot be considered grammatically well-formed in English, because it does not conform with thecanonical word order of English (Subject – Verb – Object, or SVO). Clearly the words themselves would also be different in Persian, but what counts in the context of syntax is that what is grammatical in one language may well beungrammatical in another and that this dimension is detached from meaningas we frequently understand it.
A famous example sentence helps to exemplify this last aspect of language:
Colorless green ideas sleep furiously
The sentence may not ‘make sense’ in that ideas cannot be colorless, do not have the ability to sleep and are not able to do so furiously. But grammatically the sentence is perfectly acceptable, because every word is in a place where it can potentially be, something that is not the case with *John pie likes or *Furiously sleep ideas green colorless.
Definition of SYNTAX
1
a : the way in which linguistic elements (as words) are put together to form constituents (as phrases or clauses)
b : the part of grammar dealing with this
2
: a connected or orderly system : harmonious arrangement of parts or elements
3
: syntactics especially as dealing with the formal properties of languages or calculi
Examples of SYNTAX
“I saw that she a cookie ate” is an example of incorrect syntax.
Everyone has good days and bad days. Her syntax is sometimes a world unto itself. But George H.W. Bush occasionally sounded as though English were more foe than friend, and he was an astute president who managed complexity with skill and balance.
Origin of SYNTAX
Middle French or Late Latin; Middle French sintaxe, from Late Latin syntaxis, from Greek, from syntassein to arrange together, from syn- + tassein to arrange
syntax is Arrangement of words in sentences, clauses, and phrases, and the study of the formation of sentences and the relationship of their component parts. In English, the main device for showing this relationship is word order; for example, “The boy loves his dog” follows standard subject-verb-object word order, and switching the order of such a sentence would change the meaning or make the sentence meaningless. Word order is much more flexible in languages such as Latin, in which word endings indicate the case of a noun or adjective; such inflections make it unnecessary to rely on word order to indicate a word's function in the sentence.
ADAM M Z JUNAEDI
2011B
AKHMAT ZAKARIYAH
2011 A
13
Definition of Syntax
These pages have information relevant to this discussion of syntax:
Writing and Perception
Interpretation
The Writing Process
Basically, syntax is the rules by which signs are combined to make statements. If you consider the words of a language to be its signs, then its syntax is the rules which put signs together to make statements, ask questions, and produce other utterances.
Syntax incorporates the grammar of phrases, clauses, and sentences. Producing and uttering sentences is an important part of how we make sense of our world. We articulate the meaning of our experience in words; in the process of articulate, we make (or discover) the meaning of the experience. This process is similar to the ways in which we intrepret literature.
The syntax the exact structure of what we write is an essential part of its meaning. Change the structure and you have changed the meaning, at least slightly.
A few years ago, I was on Miami Beach. Along with the ocean breeze, there was the odor of exhaust from jet-skiers who were buzzing around just beyond the surf, coming close to swimmers and small craft. The juxtaposition of the two smells impressed me strongly. Since I'm inclined to express meaningful experiences in writing, I produced the following haiku:
sea breeze
carrying the fumes
of jet-ski exhaust
If it is successful, it will convey to the reader something of what I experienced. In any case, by articulating that experience in those words in that order, I discovered, formulated, and expressed the meaning of the experience for me.
Any writer does the same, thus the importance of syntax. If you think of syntax as the description of the living forms of language, rather than as the class room rules of grammar, you may find it more useful in developing your writing abilities.
NAMA: ANITA KARINA
NO: 3, 2011B
In linguistics, the study of the rules that govern the ways in which words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is one of the major components of grammar
The arrangement of words in a sentence. Adjective: syntactic.
• "Within traditional grammar, the syntax of a language is described in terms of a taxonomy (i.e. the classificatory list) of the range of different types of syntactic structures found in the language. The central assumption underpinning syntactic analysis in traditional grammar is that phrases and sentences are built up of a series of constituents (i.e. syntactic units), each of which belongs to a specific grammatical category and serves a specific grammatical function. Given this assumption, the task of the linguist analysing the syntactic structure of any given type of sentence is to identify each of the constituents in the sentence, and (for each constituent) to say what category it belongs to and what function it serves. . . .
"In contrast to the taxonomic approach adopted in traditional grammar, [Noam] Chomsky takes a cognitive approach to the study of grammar. For Chomsky, the goal of the linguist is to determine what it is that native speakers know about their native language which enables them to speak and understand the language fluently: hence, the study of language is part of the wider study of cognition (i.e. what human beings know). In a fairly obvious sense, any native speaker of a language can be said to know the grammar of his or her native language."
• "Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages. Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its goal the construction of a grammar that can be viewed as a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under analysis."
"Syntactic change--change in the form and order of words--is . . . sometimes described as 'an elusive process as compared to sound change.' Its apparently puzzling nature is partly due to its variety. Word endings can be modified. Chaucer's line And smale foweles maken melodye shows that English has changed several of them in the last 600 years. The behaviour of verbs can alter. Middle English I kan a noble tale 'I know a fine story' reveals that can could once be used as a main verb with a direct object. And word order may switch. The proverb Whoever loved that loved not at first sight? indicates that English negatives could once be placed after main verbs. These are just a random sample of syntactic changes which have occurred in English in the last half-millennium or so."
(Jean Aitchison, Language Change: Progress or Decay? 3rd ed. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2001)
"Syntax is a word which comes from the Greek. It means, in that language, the joining of several things together; and, as used by grammarians, it means those principles and rules which teach us how to put words together so as to form sentences. It means, in short, sentence-making. Having been taught by the rules of Etymology what are the relationships of words, how words grow out of each other, how they are varied in their letters in order to correspond with the variation in the circumstances to which they apply, Syntax will teach you how to give all your words their proper situations or places, when you come to put them together into sentences."
"Syntax is a word which comes from the Greek. Syntax is the study of the part of the human linguistic system that determines how sentences are put together out of words. Syntactic rules in a grammar account for the grammaticality of sentences, and the ordering of words and morphemes. Syntax involves our knowledge of structural ambiguilt your knowledge that sentences may be paraphrases of each other our knowledge of the grammatical function of each part of a sentence, that is, of the grammatical relations.It is also concerned with speakers' ability to produce and understand an infinite set of possible sentences.The sentence is regarded the highest-ranking unit of grammar, and therefore that the purpose of grammatical description is to define, making use of whatever descriptive apparatus that may be necessary (rules, categories, etc).
Syntactic Rules
Three universal basic syntactic rules:Linear order of constituentsCategorization of constituents Grouping of constituents into constituent structures.
Sentence Types
Sentences in any language are constructed from a rather small set of basic structural patterns
and through certain processes involving the expansion or transformation of these basic patterns.When we consider sentence types from another perspective, it can be shown that each
of the longer sentences of a language (and these are in the majorityusually) is structured in the same way as one of arelatively small number of short sentences which areimpossible to reduce to a short form.These short sentences have the basic sentence types. There are different ways of dealing with sentence types.
Sentence Types
1. Simple Sentence : A simple sentence contains only one clause with a single verb group.
Example:
• Dora yelled.
• Christ resembled his father.
• Jack and Jill love each other.
• A runner from Ethiopia won the New York marathon this year.
• The students should have been working on the term paper.
2. Coordinate Sentence :A coordinate sentence has two clausesconjoined into one by a coordinating conjunction. (and, but, or). They hold equal status.
Example:
• Christ resembled his father, but hisbrother resembled his mother.
• Mark loves Dora, and she feels it
3. Complex Sentence : A complex sentence is composed of twoclauses with one holding main status(matrix clause) and the other incorporated or embedded into it(embedded clause), which is often introduced by a subordinator (who, that,though, when, because, as, since,although)
Example :
• Mark denied that Dora yelled.
• The murderer escaped when the policearrived at the scene
Syntactic Function
The traditional approach to syntactic function identifies constituents of the sentence, states the part of speech each word belongs to, describes theinflexion involved, and explains the relationship each word related to the others.According to its relation to other constituents, a constituent may serve certain syntactic function ina clause
Name : DEFI PUTRI INDAHYANI
class : 2011/B
no : 29
"Syntax is a word which comes from the Greek. Syntax is the study of the part of the human linguistic system that determines how sentences are put together out of words. Syntactic rules in a grammar account for the grammaticality of sentences, and the ordering of words and morphemes. Syntax involves our knowledge of structural ambiguilt your knowledge that sentences may be paraphrases of each other our knowledge of the grammatical function of each part of a sentence, that is, of the grammatical relations.It is also concerned with speakers' ability to produce and understand an infinite set of possible sentences.The sentence is regarded the highest-ranking unit of grammar, and therefore that the purpose of grammatical description is to define, making use of whatever descriptive apparatus that may be necessary (rules, categories, etc).
Syntactic Rules
Three universal basic syntactic rules:Linear order of constituentsCategorization of constituents Grouping of constituents into constituent structures.
Sentence Types
Sentences in any language are constructed from a rather small set of basic structural patterns
and through certain processes involving the expansion or transformation of these basic patterns.When we consider sentence types from another perspective, it can be shown that each
of the longer sentences of a language (and these are in the majorityusually) is structured in the same way as one of arelatively small number of short sentences which areimpossible to reduce to a short form.These short sentences have the basic sentence types. There are different ways of dealing with sentence types.
Sentence Types
1. Simple Sentence : A simple sentence contains only one clause with a single verb group.
Example:
• Dora yelled.
• Christ resembled his father.
• Jack and Jill love each other.
• A runner from Ethiopia won the New York marathon this year.
• The students should have been working on the term paper.
2. Coordinate Sentence :A coordinate sentence has two clausesconjoined into one by a coordinating conjunction. (and, but, or). They hold equal status.
Example:
• Christ resembled his father, but hisbrother resembled his mother.
• Mark loves Dora, and she feels it
3. Complex Sentence : A complex sentence is composed of twoclauses with one holding main status(matrix clause) and the other incorporated or embedded into it(embedded clause), which is often introduced by a subordinator (who, that,though, when, because, as, since,although)
Example :
• Mark denied that Dora yelled.
• The murderer escaped when the policearrived at the scene
Syntactic Function
The traditional approach to syntactic function identifies constituents of the sentence, states the part of speech each word belongs to, describes theinflexion involved, and explains the relationship each word related to the others.According to its relation to other constituents, a constituent may serve certain syntactic function ina clause
Senia Gusih Prativi ( 2011 C )
Syntax is one of the major components of grammar. The word syntax derives from the Greek word syntaxis, which means arrangement. Just like morphology, syntax is not concerned with what a sentence means, in the sense of what it tells us about the world, but with the internal structure of units and their relations to one another. In other words, syntax asks which sentences are in accord with the grammatical rules imposed by a particular language and which aren’t. When talking about sentences as units in grammar, it is important to recognize that we idealize their status to some extent. Spoken language often consists of incomplete utterances and seemingly disjointed pieces, but this does not make it ‘less grammatical’. In polysynthetic languages the single word serve as a complete sentence much more frequently. In such languages, morphology rather than syntax usually expresses the distinction between subject and predicate.
Linguists and grammarians who study syntax are not necessarily prescriptivist, which means they do not attempt to tell people how to "correctly" form a sentence. Rather, they are descriptivist, in that they look at how people actually speak and then create rules that describe what a language community considers grammatical or non-grammatical. Syntax deals with a number of elements, all of which help to facilitate being understood through language. Without rules, there would be no foundation from which to discern meaning from a bunch of words strung together; whereas these rules allow for a virtually infinite number of sentences .
Ridhotul Umami ( 2011 C )
Syntax is one of the major components of grammar. The word syntax derives from the Greek word syntaxis, which means arrangement. Just like morphology, syntax is not concerned with what a sentence means, in the sense of what it tells us about the world, but with the internal structure of units and their relations to one another. In other words, syntax asks which sentences are in accord with the grammatical rules imposed by a particular language and which aren’t. When talking about sentences as units in grammar, it is important to recognize that we idealize their status to some extent. Spoken language often consists of incomplete utterances and seemingly disjointed pieces, but this does not make it ‘less grammatical’. In polysynthetic languages the single word serve as a complete sentence much more frequently. In such languages, morphology rather than syntax usually expresses the distinction between subject and predicate.
Linguists and grammarians who study syntax are not necessarily prescriptivist, which means they do not attempt to tell people how to "correctly" form a sentence. Rather, they are descriptivist, in that they look at how people actually speak and then create rules that describe what a language community considers grammatical or non-grammatical. Syntax deals with a number of elements, all of which help to facilitate being understood through language. Without rules, there would be no foundation from which to discern meaning from a bunch of words strung together; whereas these rules allow for a virtually infinite number of sentences .
NAME : ANA CHUSNUL CHOTIMA
CLASS : 2011.C/21.
Syntax in linguistics is the study of how abstract units of language such as words acceptably combine into larger grammatical structures such as phrases and sentences. Syntacticians attempt to define rules which describe the formation such structures and disallow others, either in the grammar of a specific language, or in all languages. Since the publication of Noam Chomsky's book Syntactic Structures in 1957, much research on syntax in the modern discipline of linguistics has been within the frameworks of generative linguistics theories such as minimalist syntax, or has emerged in competition to those theories.
To some extent, the process is similar to word recognition, in that people look for outline clues, and then actively reconstruct the probable message from them. In linguistic terminology, heardrs utilize perceptual strategies. They jump to conclusions on the basis of outline clues by imposing what they expect to hear onto the stream of sounds.
For example, consider the sentence:
The boy kicked the ball threw it.
Most people who hear the sentence feel that there is a word left out somewhere, and that it would preferably be:
The boy who kicked the ball threw it.
The boy kicked the ball, then threw it.
However, they realize that it is in fact perfectly well-performed when shown a similar sentence:
The boy thrown the ball kicked it. (the boy to whom the ball was thrown kicked it.)
Name : NOVI ANDAYANI
Class : A 2011/A
SYNTAX
a. Definition:
• In simple sentence, we can say : syntax is the arrangement of words in a sentence.
• In linguistics, the study of the rules that govern the ways in which words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is one of the major components of grammar.
• "Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages. Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its goal the construction of a grammar that can be viewed as a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under analysis".(Noam Chomsky, Syntactic Structures, 1971)
b. Sentence types:
One way to categorize sentences is by the clauses they contain. (A clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject and a predicate.)
Here are the 4 sentence types:
* Simple: Contains a single, independent clause.
o I don't like dogs.
o Our school basketball team lost their last game of the season 75-68.
o The old hotel opposite the bus station in the center of the town is probably going to be knocked down at the end of next year.
* Compound: Contains two independent clauses that are joined by a coordinating conjunction. (The most common coordinating conjunctions are: but, or, and, so. Remember: boas.)
o I don't like dogs, and my sister doesn't like cats.
o You can write on paper, or you can use a computer.
o A tree fell onto the school roof in a storm, but none of the students was injured.
* Complex: Contains an independent clause plus one or more dependent clauses. (A dependent clause starts with a subordinating conjunction. Examples: that, because, while, although, where, if.)
o I don't like dogs that bark at me when I go past.
o She did my homework, while her father cooked dinner.
o You can write on paper, although a computer is better if you want to correct mistakes easily.
Note: A dependent clause standing alone without an independent clause is called a fragment sentence - see below.
* Compound-complex: Contains 3 or more clauses (of which at least two are independent and one is dependent).
o I don't like dogs, and my sister doesn't like cats because they make her sneeze.
o You can write on paper, but using a computer is better as you can easily correct your mistakes.
o A tree fell onto the school roof in a storm, but none of the students was injured, although many of them were in classrooms at the top of the building.
In the following examples the dependent clause is shown in underlined :
* Although it was raining, we decided to go fishing.
* If it doesn't rain soon, the river will dry out.
* Because the road was icy and the driver was going too fast, he was unable to brake in time when a fox ran into the road in front of him.
syntax (from Ancient Greek σύνταξις "arrangement" from σύν syn, "together", and τάξις táxis, "an ordering") is "the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages".[1]
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of the structure of a sentence and ordering of its elements. The word syntax itself derives from Greek words meaning ‘together’ or ‘arrangement’, but also the modern syntactic tradition and investigations have their roots in the findings of ancient Greeks. One of such ‘traditional’ tasks of linguists dealing with syntax was to describe the organization of the parts of a sentence, however, with the development of this branch of linguistics, and especially in contemporary inquiries the scope of interest has widened.
Yet, before the most recent theories are presented the very concept of a ‘sentence’ needs clarification. As a general rule, a sentence is described as a full formulation of an idea, nevertheless, there are numerous examples of thoughts expressed in a language, and yet in not fully developed sentences, like: ‘Go!’, or ‘Coffee?’. That is why two different approaches to defining sentences have emerged: notional which characterizes a sentence as an expression of a single idea, and formal focusing on the manners of constructing sentences, and patterns within them.
As a consequence of the differences in the approaches a division of sentences on the basis of their complexity was created. And thus sentences are either major, or minor. Major sentences are those which can be modified or analyzed further into patterns of elements. They are further subdivided into simple sentences, which consist of only one clause, or multiple sentences consisting of two or more clauses. On the other hand, minor sentences cannot be broken down into patterns of elements, because they use ‘abnormal’ patterns, in that they do not follow the rules of grammar. Some types of minor sentences include: abbreviated forms, such as ‘wish you were here’; proverbs: ‘easy come, easy go’; emotional noises: ‘ouch!’, ‘ugh!’; formulae: ‘how do you do?’.
NAMA; roidatul rizqiah
class; 2011 B/11
"Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages. Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its goal the construction of a grammar that can be viewed as a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under analysis."
(Noam Chomsky, Syntactic Structures, 1971)
"Syntax is a word which comes from the Greek. It means, in that language, the joining of several things together; and, as used by grammarians, it means those principles and rules which teach us how to put words together so as to form sentences. It means, in short, sentence-making. Having been taught by the rules of Etymology what are the relationships of words, how words grow out of each other, how they are varied in their letters in order to correspond with the variation in the circumstances to which they apply, Syntax will teach you how to give all your words their proper situations or places, when you come to put them together into sentences."
Syntax
Syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing phrases and sentences in a language. Syntax focuses on the word order of a language and the relationships between words.
Read Full Text @ LinguisticsGirl.com: http://www.linguisticsgirl.com/linguistic-definition-of-syntax/#ixzz28aKFnGeb
nama: siti salma
class: 2011 c/27
syntax (from Ancient Greek σύνταξις "arrangement" from σύν syn, "together", and τάξις táxis, "an ordering") is "the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages".[1]
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of the structure of a sentence and ordering of its elements. The word syntax itself derives from Greek words meaning ‘together’ or ‘arrangement’, but also the modern syntactic tradition and investigations have their roots in the findings of ancient Greeks. One of such ‘traditional’ tasks of linguists dealing with syntax was to describe the organization of the parts of a sentence, however, with the development of this branch of linguistics, and especially in contemporary inquiries the scope of interest has widened.
Yet, before the most recent theories are presented the very concept of a ‘sentence’ needs clarification. As a general rule, a sentence is described as a full formulation of an idea, nevertheless, there are numerous examples of thoughts expressed in a language, and yet in not fully developed sentences, like: ‘Go!’, or ‘Coffee?’. That is why two different approaches to defining sentences have emerged: notional which characterizes a sentence as an expression of a single idea, and formal focusing on the manners of constructing sentences, and patterns within them.
As a consequence of the differences in the approaches a division of sentences on the basis of their complexity was created. And thus sentences are either major, or minor. Major sentences are those which can be modified or analyzed further into patterns of elements. They are further subdivided into simple sentences, which consist of only one clause, or multiple sentences consisting of two or more clauses. On the other hand, minor sentences cannot be broken down into patterns of elements, because they use ‘abnormal’ patterns, in that they do not follow the rules of grammar. Some types of minor sentences include: abbreviated forms, such as ‘wish you were here’; proverbs: ‘easy come, easy go’; emotional noises: ‘ouch!’, ‘ugh!’; formulae: ‘how do you do?’.
Name : UMIL MUKMININ
CLASS : 2011B
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of the structure of a sentence and ordering of its elements. The word syntax itself derives from Greek words meaning ‘together’ or ‘arrangement’, but also the modern syntactic tradition and investigations have their roots in the findings of ancient Greeks. One of such ‘traditional’ tasks of linguists dealing with syntax was to describe the organization of the parts of a sentence, however, with the development of this branch of linguistics, and especially in contemporary inquiries the scope of interest has widened.
Yet, before the most recent theories are presented the very concept of a ‘sentence’ needs clarification. As a general rule, a sentence is described as a full formulation of an idea, nevertheless, there are numerous examples of thoughts expressed in a language, and yet in not fully developed sentences, like: ‘Go!’, or ‘Coffee?’. That is why two different approaches to defining sentences have emerged: notional which characterizes a sentence as an expression of a single idea, and formal focusing on the manners of constructing sentences, and patterns within them.
As a consequence of the differences in the approaches a division of sentences on the basis of their complexity was created. And thus sentences are either major, or minor. Major sentences are those which can be modified or analyzed further into patterns of elements. They are further subdivided into simple sentences, which consist of only one clause, or multiple sentences consisting of two or more clauses. On the other hand, minor sentences cannot be broken down into patterns of elements, because they use ‘abnormal’ patterns, in that they do not follow the rules of grammar. Some types of minor sentences include: abbreviated forms, such as ‘wish you were here’; proverbs: ‘easy come, easy go’; emotional noises: ‘ouch!’, ‘ugh!’; formulae: ‘how do you do?’.
Overgoasyntax is the study of the rules for the formation of grammatical sentences in a language or the study of the patterns of formation of sentences and phrases from words.
The basic components of a sentence usually are the subject, verb and then any objects (that depends on if a word is transitive or intransitive).
There are many basic forms, usually using S (subject), V (verb) and O (object). These patterns include
SVO
SOV
VSO
VOS
OSV
OVS
English is heavily SVO, unless it's a question in which case it's VSO. Syntax and literature are so important and dependent upon each other that the two cannot be separated. Syntax in literature gives the sum of the words meaning in a way that simply listing words never would. Syntax influences literature in a big way, because without proper syntax literature would simply not exist, nor would many of the subtleties that academics and casual readers alike love to ponder. In looking at syntax in literature, writers can use it in numerous ways to convey different meanings and provoke certain responses.
NAME : FAJAR SUBEKTI
CLASS 2011A
SYNTAX
a. Definition:
• In simple sentence, we can say : syntax is the arrangement of words in a sentence.
• In linguistics, the study of the rules that govern the ways in which words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is one of the major components of grammar.
• "Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages. Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its goal the construction of a grammar that can be viewed as a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under analysis".(Noam Chomsky, Syntactic Structures, 1971)
b. Sentence types:
One way to categorize sentences is by the clauses they contain. (A clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject and a predicate.)
Here are the 4 sentence types:
* Simple: Contains a single, independent clause.
o I don't like dogs.
o Our school basketball team lost their last game of the season 75-68.
o The old hotel opposite the bus station in the center of the town is probably going to be knocked down at the end of next year.
* Compound: Contains two independent clauses that are joined by a coordinating conjunction. (The most common coordinating conjunctions are: but, or, and, so. Remember: boas.)
o I don't like dogs, and my sister doesn't like cats.
o You can write on paper, or you can use a computer.
o A tree fell onto the school roof in a storm, but none of the students was injured.
* Complex: Contains an independent clause plus one or more dependent clauses. (A dependent clause starts with a subordinating conjunction. Examples: that, because, while, although, where, if.)
o I don't like dogs that bark at me when I go past.
o She did my homework, while her father cooked dinner.
o You can write on paper, although a computer is better if you want to correct mistakes easily.
Note: A dependent clause standing alone without an independent clause is called a fragment sentence - see below.
* Compound-complex: Contains 3 or more clauses (of which at least two are independent and one is dependent).
o I don't like dogs, and my sister doesn't like cats because they make her sneeze.
o You can write on paper, but using a computer is better as you can easily correct your mistakes.
o A tree fell onto the school roof in a storm, but none of the students was injured, although many of them were in classrooms at the top of the building.
NAME : VINDIANI WIGUSTI
CLASS : 2011 B
NO : 19
"Syntax is a word which comes from the Greek. Syntax is the study of the part of the human linguistic system that determines how sentences are put together out of words. Syntactic rules in a grammar account for the grammaticality of sentences, and the ordering of words and morphemes. Syntax involves our knowledge of structural ambiguilt your knowledge that sentences may be paraphrases of each other our knowledge of the grammatical function of each part of a sentence, that is, of the grammatical relations.It is also concerned with speakers' ability to produce and understand an infinite set of possible sentences.The sentence is regarded the highest-ranking unit of grammar, and therefore that the purpose of grammatical description is to define, making use of whatever descriptive apparatus that may be necessary (rules, categories, etc).
Syntactic Rules
Three universal basic syntactic rules:Linear order of constituentsCategorization of constituents Grouping of constituents into constituent structures.
Sentence Types
Sentences in any language are constructed from a rather small set of basic structural patterns
and through certain processes involving the expansion or transformation of these basic patterns.When we consider sentence types from another perspective, it can be shown that each
of the longer sentences of a language (and these are in the majorityusually) is structured in the same way as one of arelatively small number of short sentences which areimpossible to reduce to a short form.These short sentences have the basic sentence types. There are different ways of dealing with sentence types.
Sentence Types
1. Simple Sentence : A simple sentence contains only one clause with a single verb group.
2. Coordinate Sentence :A coordinate sentence has two clausesconjoined into one by a coordinating conjunction. (and, but, or). They hold equal status.
3. Complex Sentence : A complex sentence is composed of twoclauses with one holding main status(matrix clause) and the other incorporated or embedded into it(embedded clause), which is often introduced by a subordinator (who, that,though, when, because, as, since,although)
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of the structure of a sentence and ordering of its elements. The word syntax itself derives from Greek words meaning ‘together’ or ‘arrangement’, but also the modern syntactic tradition and investigations have their roots in the findings of ancient Greeks. One of such ‘traditional’ tasks of linguists dealing with syntax was to describe the organization of the parts of a sentence, however, with the development of this branch of linguistics, and especially in contemporary inquiries the scope of interest has widened.
Yet, before the most recent theories are presented the very concept of a ‘sentence’ needs clarification. As a general rule, a sentence is described as a full formulation of an idea, nevertheless, there are numerous examples of thoughts expressed in a language, and yet in not fully developed sentences, like: ‘Go!’, or ‘Coffee?’. That is why two different approaches to defining sentences have emerged: notional which characterizes a sentence as an expression of a single idea, and formal focusing on the manners of constructing sentences, and patterns within them.
As a consequence of the differences in the approaches a division of sentences on the basis of their complexity was created. And thus sentences are either major, or minor. Major sentences are those which can be modified or analyzed further into patterns of elements. They are further subdivided into simple sentences, which consist of only one clause, or multiple sentences consisting of two or more clauses. On the other hand, minor sentences cannot be broken down into patterns of elements, because they use ‘abnormal’ patterns, in that they do not follow the rules of grammar. Some types of minor sentences include: abbreviated forms, such as ‘wish you were here’; proverbs: ‘easy come, easy go’; emotional noises: ‘ouch!’, ‘ugh!’; formulae: ‘how do you do?’.
This section is an introduction to syntax in language as far as it is relevant to the content of this book. It is not meant to be a rigorous discussion of linguistics. What I am describing is a simple orthodox view of the grammar of language. Some more complex models are discussed by linguists but these are beyond the scope of this description. This section is included for those readers who would like a brief overview without having to refer separately to a linguistics textbook. Those who would like to read more about the various linguistic theories should refer to the bibliography for references to linguistics books and to sites on the web covering linguistic topics.
Languages have rules. The rules of a language are called the grammar. The reason for these rules is that a person needs to be able to speak an indeterminately large number of sentences in a lifetime. The effort would be impossibly great if each sentence had to be learnt separately.
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of the structure of a sentence and ordering of its elements. The word syntax itself derives from Greek words meaning ‘together’ or ‘arrangement’, but also the modern syntactic tradition and investigations have their roots in the findings of ancient Greeks. One of such ‘traditional’ tasks of linguists dealing with syntax was to describe the organization of the parts of a sentence, however, with the development of this branch of linguistics, and especially in contemporary inquiries the scope of interest has widened.
Yet, before the most recent theories are presented the very concept of a ‘sentence’ needs clarification. As a general rule, a sentence is described as a full formulation of an idea, nevertheless, there are numerous examples of thoughts expressed in a language, and yet in not fully developed sentences, like: ‘Go!’, or ‘Coffee?’. That is why two different approaches to defining sentences have emerged: notional which characterizes a sentence as an expression of a single idea, and formal focusing on the manners of constructing sentences, and patterns within them.
As a consequence of the differences in the approaches a division of sentences on the basis of their complexity was created. And thus sentences are either major, or minor. Major sentences are those which can be modified or analyzed further into patterns of elements. They are further subdivided into simple sentences, which consist of only one clause, or multiple sentences consisting of two or more clauses. On the other hand, minor sentences cannot be broken down into patterns of elements, because they use ‘abnormal’ patterns, in that they do not follow the rules of grammar. Some types of minor sentences include: abbreviated forms, such as ‘wish you were here’; proverbs: ‘easy come, easy go’; emotional noises: ‘ouch!’, ‘ugh!’; formulae: ‘how do you do?’.
This section is an introduction to syntax in language as far as it is relevant to the content of this book. It is not meant to be a rigorous discussion of linguistics. What I am describing is a simple orthodox view of the grammar of language. Some more complex models are discussed by linguists but these are beyond the scope of this description. This section is included for those readers who would like a brief overview without having to refer separately to a linguistics textbook. Those who would like to read more about the various linguistic theories should refer to the bibliography for references to linguistics books and to sites on the web covering linguistic topics.
Languages have rules. The rules of a language are called the grammar. The reason for these rules is that a person needs to be able to speak an indeterminately large number of sentences in a lifetime. The effort would be impossibly great if each sentence had to be learnt separately.
ROBI'ATUL ADAWIYAH
2011_C
Ika septyaningsih (2011 C)
Syntax is one of the major components of grammar. The word syntax derives from the Greek word syntaxis, which means arrangement. Just like morphology, syntax is not concerned with what a sentence means, in the sense of what it tells us about the world, but with the internal structure of units and their relations to one another. In other words, syntax asks which sentences are in accord with the grammatical rules imposed by a particular language and which aren’t. When talking about sentences as units in grammar, it is important to recognize that we idealize their status to some extent. Spoken language often consists of incomplete utterances and seemingly disjointed pieces, but this does not make it ‘less grammatical’. In polysynthetic languages the single word serve as a complete sentence much more frequently. In such languages, morphology rather than syntax usually expresses the distinction between subject and predicate.
Linguists and grammarians who study syntax are not necessarily prescriptivist, which means they do not attempt to tell people how to "correctly" form a sentence. Rather, they are descriptivist, in that they look at how people actually speak and then create rules that describe what a language community considers grammatical or non-grammatical. Syntax deals with a number of elements, all of which help to facilitate being understood through language. Without rules, there would be no foundation from which to discern meaning from a bunch of words strung together; whereas these rules allow for a virtually infinite number of sentences .
Nur Kamiliyah ( 2011 C )
Syntax :
The Sentence Patterns of Languange .
There are 4 important things of syntax :
1. Structure of modification
2. Structure of Predication
3. Structure of Compelement
4. Strucuture of Coordination
Knowing a language also means being able to put words together to form phrases and sentences that express our thoughts. The part of grammar that concern the structure of phrases and sentence is called syntax.
NUR WAHYUNI 2011/C.
Syntax treats of the relations of words or groups of words to one another in senteces.
and Syntax has the branches of linguistics levels, morphology, word formation, the part of speech, noun phrase, sentence, sentence analysis, inversion, and elliptic.
Name:wattini
Class:2011 c
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of the structure of a sentence and ordering of its elements. The word syntax itself derives from Greek words meaning ‘together’ or ‘arrangement’, but also the modern syntactic tradition and investigations have their roots in the findings of ancient Greeks. One of such ‘traditional’ tasks of linguists dealing with syntax was to describe the organization of the parts of a sentence, however, with the development of this branch of linguistics, and especially in contemporary inquiries the scope of interest has widened.
example:
the boy kicked the ball threw it.
the boy kicked the ball,then threw it.
Syntax in linguistics is the study of how abstract units of language such as words acceptably combine into larger grammatical structures such as phrases and sentences. Syntacticians attempt to define rules which describe the formation such structures and disallow others, either in the grammar of a specific language, or in all languages.
Example:
clever girl and boys go to university.
small dogs and cats do not need much exercise.
Name:watzaitun
class:2011 C
Diniya Prasetya
2011/A
syntax is not concerned with what a sentence means, in the sense of what it tells us about the world, but with the internal structure of units and their relations to one another. In other words, syntax asks which sentences are in accord with the grammatical rules imposed by a particular language and which aren’t.
When talking about sentences as units in grammar, it is important to recognize that we idealize their status to some extent. Spoken language often consists of incomplete utterances and seemingly disjointed pieces, but this does not make it ‘less grammatical’.
Two simple sentences demonstrate aptly what sort of relations are covered by syntax:
John likes pie
*John pie likes
The words used in both sentences are identical and common expressions in English. But clearly there is a problem with John pie likes. While in Persian such a sentence structure would be acceptable, it cannot be considered grammatically well-formed in English, because it does not conform with the canonical word order of English (Subject – Verb – Object, or SVO). Clearly the words themselves would also be different in Persian, but what counts in the context of syntax is that what is grammatical in one language may well be ungrammatical in another and that this dimension is detached from meaning as we frequently understand it.
A famous example sentence helps to exemplify this last aspect of language:
Colorless green ideas sleep furiously
The sentence may not ‘make sense’ in that ideas cannot be colorless, do not have the ability to sleep and are not able to do so furiously. But grammatically the sentence is perfectly acceptable, because every word is in a place where it can potentially be, something that is not the case with *John pie likes or *Furiously sleep ideas green colorless.
KHUSRINA RAHAYU / 2011.C
SYNTAX
Syntax is arrangement of words in sentences, clauses, and phrases, and the study of the formation of sentences and the relationship of their component parts. In English, the main device for showing this relationship is word order; for example, “The boy loves his dog” follows standard subject-verb-object word order, and switching the order of such a sentence would change the meaning or make the sentence meaningless. Word order is much more flexible in languages such as Latin, in which word endings indicate the case of a noun or adjective; such inflections make it unnecessary to rely on word order to indicate a word's function in the sentence.
Perhaps the most important aspect of syntax is how the various parts of speech connect together. Every language has rules that dictate where certain types of words can be used in a sentence, and how to interpret the resulting sentence. A new language learner has to understand how this word order is structured, which can be difficult for someone used to a different language.
IKE MASRUROH / 2011.C
SYNTAX
In linguistics, syntax (from Ancient Greek σύνταξις "arrangement" from σύν syn, "together", and τάξις táxis, "an ordering") is "the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages".[1]
In addition to referring to the overarching discipline, the term syntax is also used to refer directly to the rules and principles that govern the sentence structure of any individual language, for example in "the syntax of Modern Irish." Modern research in syntax attempts to describe languages in terms of such rules. Many professionals in this discipline attempt to find general rules that apply to all natural languages.
The term syntax is also used to refer to the rules governing the behavior of mathematical systems, such as formal languages used in logic.
ANNISA 2011 C
"Syntax is a word which comes from the Greek. It means, in that language, the joining of several things together; and, as used by grammarians, it means those principles and rules which teach us how to put words together so as to form sentences. It means, in short, sentence-making. Having been taught by the rules of Etymology what are the relationships of words, how words grow out of each other, how they are varied in their letters in order to correspond with the variation in the circumstances to which they apply, Syntax will teach you how to give all your words their proper situations or places, when you come to put them together into sentences."
NUR WAHYUNI 2011/C
"Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages. Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its goal the construction of a grammar that can be viewed as a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under analysis."
Syntax treats of the relations of words or groups of words to one another in senteces.
and Syntax has the branches of linguistics levels, morphology, word formation, the part of speech, noun phrase, sentence, sentence analysis, inversion, and elliptic.
Linguistics has 4 level:
a.sound level, b. morphological level, c. Syntactic level (the science is Syntac), and d. SEmantic level.
syntax is the study of the arrangement of words into prhases and sentences.
Syntax has the branches of linguistics levels, morphology, word formation, the part of speech, noun phrase, sentence, sentence analysis, inversion, and elliptic.
Syntax is restricted to the arrangement of words, and the standard term morphology is used for their make - up. this is not a case of one group of linguistics being right in their use of terminology, and the other wrong, but of words gradually shifting their meaning, with the terms "Syntax" and "Grammar" extending their range.
"Nurul Lailatul Fauziah"
2011/C
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